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BETTER  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


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BETTER 
RURAL  SCHOOLS 


By 
GEORGE  HERBERT  BETTS 

Author  of  // 

THE  MIND  AND  IT«  EDUCATION.  THE  RECITATION.  ETC. 

and 

OTIS  EARLE  HALL 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  MONTGOMERY  COUNTY.  INDIANA 


ILLUSTRATED  BY 

PHOTOGRAPHS  AND  CHARTS 


INDIANAPOLIS 
THE  BOBBS-MERRILL  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


Copyright  1914 
TBe  Bobbs-Merrill  Compast 


PRESS    OF 

8RAUNWORTH   ft   CO. 

auOKBINOERS    ANO    PRINTCRC 

BROOKLYN,   N.   V. 


PREFACE 

The  rural  school  presents  the  most  important  problem 
in  American  education.  In  it  are  more  than  six  million 
children  coming  from  one  great  industry,  agriculture — 
the  most  fundamental  and  important  of  all  industries. 
Under  present  conditions  this  occupation  calls  for  an 
unusual  degree  of  intelligence  and  skill.  It  demands  the 
highest  type  of  business  management  and  industrial 
ability.  And  with  the  success  of  agriculture  is  linked  the 
welfare  of  every  American  citizen,  whatever  be  his  status 
or  vocation. 

Yet  the  rural  school,  the  sole  educational  opportunity 
of  most  of  our  agricultural  population,  has  been  grossly 
neglected.  In  the  midst  of  universal  progress,  it  has  been 
allowed  to  lag  behind  town  and  city  schools.  Abandoned 
^o  relative  inefficiency,  it  has  failed  to  hold  the  loyalty  and 
support  of  its  constituency.  The  victim  of  changing 
social  and  industrial  conditions,  it  has  dwindled  in  size, 
diminished  in  influence,  and  lost  step  with  the  spirit  of 
the  times. 

But  the  center  of  emphasis  in  education  is  changing — 
has  changed.  The  great  forces  recently  set  at  work  to  re- 
organize and  vitalize  country  life  have  found  the  condi- 
tion of  the  rural  school  to  be  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
decay.  In  it  they  have  also  discovered  one  of  the  most 
promising  instruments  of  reclamation  and  reform.  The 
rural  school  will  come  into  its  own.  The  great  educa- 
tional agencies  of  the  country — national,  state  and  pri- 
vate— are  organizing  to  give  it  every  help  at  their  com- 


PREFACE 

inand.  Commercial  interests  are  offering  cooperation 
and  support.  Legislatures  are  shaping  laws  to  its  advan- 
tage and  placing  increased  revenues  at  its  disposal.  Best 
of  all,  this  accession  of  public  interest  is  stimulating  the 
patrons  themselves  to  desire  and  demand  better  schools. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  interpret  the  rising  tide  of 
interest  in  the  rural  school,  and  to  offer  whatever  help 
it  may  in  guiding  the  energy  in  fruitful  lines.  It  is 
written  especially  for  rural  teachers  and  administrators 
in  their  reading  circles,  normal  schools  and  study  classes. 
For,  while  others  may  plan  and  project,  it  is  the  teachers 
and  their  official  guides  who  must  finally  put  these  plans 
and  projects  into  execution.  They  are  the  ones  who  are 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  rural  school  and  its  prob- 
lems ;  they  meet  pupils  and  patrons  face  to  face  and  know 
their  attitudes  and  modes  of  thought.  And  reforms  are 
not  carried  out  by  resolutions  or  legislative  decrees,  but 
by  individual  influence  and  personal  effort. 

The  book  is  simply  written,  that  it  may  be  easy  and 
attractive  reading.  It  contains  much  of  illustration,  inci- 
dent and  application,  that  it  may  be  immediately  helpful. 
It  touches  on  such  questions  as  the  teacher  must  daily 
meet,  that  it  may  be  practical.  It  presents  many  pictures 
of  school  conditions,  that  certain  lessons  may  be  doubly 
enforced.  The  weaknesses  of  present  rural  schools  have 
been  frankly  exposed,  but  not  for  the  purpose  of  mere 
faultfinding.  Criticisms  are  often  sharp,  but  never  in 
a  carping  spirit.  The  motive  of  the  entire  volume  is  con- 
structive. Faults  are  revealed  only  to  show  the  means 
by  which  they  may  be  remedied,  and  mistakes  are  con- 
demned only  to  suggest  the  way  to  rectify  them. 

The  scope  of  the  book  is  broad.  It  shows  how  the 
call  for  higher  efficiency  in  rural  schools  is  a  part  of  a 
universal  demand  upon  education.    It  interprets  the  rela- 


PREFACE 

tion  of  tHe  curriculum  to  efficiency  in  education,  and 
shows  the  reorganization  necessary  in  the  rural-school 
course  of  study.  Because  the  teacher  is  the  central  factor 
in  the  school,  almost  one- fourth  of  the  chapters  are  given 
over  to  every-day  problems  that  confront  the  teacher  in 
the  schoolroom.  Consolidation  is  looked  upon  as  the 
most  important  single  factor  in  improving  rural  educa- 
tion, hence  this  subject  is  accorded  detailed  and  extensive 
consideration.  The  administration  of  rural  schools,  in- 
cluding forms  of  supervision,  financial  support  and  social 
points  of  contact  with  the  community,  is  fully  treated. 
Schoolhouses  and  their  equipment,  the  care  of  school 
buildings  and  the  preparation  and  equipment  of  school 
playgrounds  are  discussed.  The  responsibility  of  the 
rural  school  for  the  health  of  its  pupils  and  community 
is  recognized.  Finally,  the  outlook  for  rural  education 
is  examined  in  the  light  of  present  tendencies  and  oppor- 
tunities, and  the  teacher's  part  defined  in  the  movement 
for  better  rural  schools. 

George  Herbert  Betts, 

Mount  Vernon,  Iowa. 

Otis  Earle  Hall, 

Crawfordsville,  Indiana. 


CONTENTS 


Part  I 
THE  DEMAND  FOR  BETTER  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

I  The  New  Outlook 1 

The  rural  school  an  important  factor  in  American  education — • 
Early  school  conditions — The  social  side  of  old-time  schools — 
Environment  of  pioneer  schools — Changes  in  industrial  condi- 
tions— New  standards  demanded  in  schools — New  standards  in 
agriculture — Farm  children's  need  of  education — Can  the  rural 
school  meet  its  demands — Rural  and  town  schools  compared — • 
Present  status  of  rural  schools — Inadequate  to  the  needs  of 
rural  life — The  farmer  can  support  better  schools — The  oppor- 
tunity of  the  rural  school — Encouraging  signs. 

II  The  Call  for  Efficiency 16 

EflBciency  the  demand  of  the  age — Difficulty  in  measuring 
school  efficiency — Drawing  power  a  measure  of  efficiency — Rural 
school  fails  to  draw  and  hold  pupils — Influence  of  teacher  in 
holding  pupils — Rural-school  year  short — Attendance  year 
shorter — Results  of  short-time  attendance — The  waste  of  time 
through  poor  attendance — The  type  of  education  as  a  measure 
of  efficiency — Duty  of  the  rural  school  to  its  patrons — ^The  rural 
school  and  better  farming — Education  in  agriculture  through 
rural  schools — The  rural  school  and  public  health — Teaching  of 
hygiene  in  rural  schools — Loyalty  as  a  measure  of  efficiency — 
Support  ready  when  returns  are  assured — The  rural  school  as 
a  social  center — Changes  demanded  by  new  ideals. 

Part  II 
THE  CURRICULUM  OF  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 

III  The  Old  Curriculum 43 

Need  of  a  broader  and  richer  curriculum — Mere  literacy  no 

longer  a  test — Things  that  should  be  known  by  rural  boys  and 
girls — ^Vital  subjects  lacking  in  rural  schools — Old  standards 
still  prevail  in  many  schools — Studies  not  related  to  life — ^Use- 
less versus  useful  knowledge — Time  wasted  upon  senseless  drill 
on   useless   matter — Curriculum    still   meager   and   narrow — In- 


CONTENTS 

dustrial  training  in  old-time  home — Old-time  training  in  domes- 
tic science — The  boy  and  the  old  home  workshop — Industrial 
changes  in  the  modern  home — The  school  must  take  over  func- 
tions lost  from  home — The  school  must  train  the  hand — Manual 
training,  agriculture  and  domestic  science  to  be  added — Music 
and  art  to  have  a  place — ^View-point  of  the  old  subjects  to  be 
changed — Changes  in  teaching  reading,  arithmetic  and  other 
subjects — How  time  is  to  be  secured  for  new  subjects. 

IV  The  Reorganized  Curriculum 60 

The  new  curriculum  not  to  neglect  fundamental  subjects — 
Point  of  emphasis  to  be  changed — School  interests  related  to 
home  interests — Core  of  new  curriculum — Plan  of  new  curricu- 
lum— ^Vocational  subjects  alone  not  enough — Difference  between 
old  and  new  curricula — Stupefying  effects  of  old  method — The 
new  curriculum  connects  with  home  activities — Reading,  language 
and  number  related  to  concrete  subjects — Teaching  of  the  fun- 
damentals vitalized — Not  discipline  but  efficiency  the  aim — 
Nature  study  the  child's  starting-point — Geography  and  agri- 
culture have  foundation  in  nature  study — Home  economics  be- 
gun in  the  elementary  school — Habits  and  hygiene  of  first 
importance — Manual  training  a  part  of  the  curriculum — Teaching 
of  music  and  art — History  to  deal  with  life  of  people — Im- 
portance of  concrete  civics. 

V  Correlation 11 

Rapid  growth  of  rural-school  curriculum — Danger  of  over- 
working teacher  and  pupil — Principles  underlying  revision  of 
curriculum — The  principle  of  correlation — What  is  correlation — 
Correlation  stimulates  interest — Correlation  must  be  natural — 
Immediate  interests  the  natural  basis  of  correlation — Saving 
time  through  correlation — Correlation  leads  to  efficiency — Cor- 
relation with  basis  of  nature  study — Points  of  contact  reached 
through  nature  study — A  lesson  on  birds — Correlation  with  ag- 
riculture as  a  basis — Agriculture  and  arithmetic — Correlation 
with  a  basis  of  home  economics — Geography  and  correlation — 
Correlation  requires  expert  teaching. 

, VI    Vocational  Training  93 

Rural  children  dropping  out  of  school  too  early — Remedy  lies 
in   vitalizing   school — Difference   in   attitude   of   rural   and   city 


CONTENTS 

child — Grov'th  of  vocational  education — Responsibility  of  rural 
school  for  vocational  education — Rural  school  equal  to  the 
task — Vocational  studies  must  be  practical — Rural-school  limita- 
tions in  vocational  training — Possibilities  of  one-room  school — 
Community  cooperation — "Home  project"  work — Types  of  home 
projects — The  Massachusetts  plan — Success  attained — Home  proj- 
ects without  supervision — The  Oregon  plan — The  agricultural- 
club  movement — Department  of  Agriculture  and  clubs — Success 
of  club  movement — Club  prize  winners — Reflex  influence  on 
schools — Influence  on  pupils — Response  to  "special"  schools — All 
rural  schools  to  be  vocational. 


Part  HI 
THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 

VII  The  Spirit  of  the  Teacher 115 

The  teacher  chief  factor  in  the  school — Power  to  hinder  or 
promote  progress — The  teacher  must  embody  educational  ideal — 
The  spirit  of  the  teacher — A  teacher  with  the  wrong  attitude — 
Results  accomplished  by  a  devoted  teacher — Difficult  problems 
to  be  met — Meeting  the  "dare"  of  hard  conditions — Rural  school 
no  place  for  half-hearted  work — What  enthusiasm  can  accom- 
plish— The  teacher  who  feels  above  his  work — An  example  of 
helpfulness — The  reward  of  helpfulness — The  teacher's  attitude 
toward  his  people — A  cure  for  impatience  with  the  humdrum — 
Elementary  grades  the  most  important — Demand  for  choice 
qualities  in  rural  teacher — The  teacher's  view  of  his  vocation. 

VIII  Scholastic   Preparation 131 

Need  of  scholastic  preparation — The  teacher  must  embody 
the  truth  he  teaches — The  blind  attempting  to  lead  the  blind — 
The  cost  of  ignorance — New  demands  upon  teachers — A  worthy 
example — Opportunities  open  to  teachers — A  high-school  edu- 
cation the  minimum — Scholastic  requirements  no  hardship. 

IX  Professional  Training 140 

Recent  demand  for  professional  training — Example  of  lack 

of  professional  training — Teaching  an   art — Growth   of   normal 
training— The  function  of  the  normal  school— Need  for  obser- 


CONTENTS 

vation  work — Training  to  teach  newer  subjects — Advantages  to 
the  professionally  trained  teacher — Professional  training  in- 
cludes the  child — The  unkind  teacher  who  did  not  understand 
children — Teaching  children  instead  of  subjects — Influence  of 
the  strong  teacher. 

X  Teacher  and  Community 152 

The  community  feeling  of  ownership  in  the  teacher — The 
teacher  owes  full  service — Knowledge  of  community  essential — 
Failures  from  lack  of  knowing  community — An  incident  of  two 
famous  educators — The  teacher  must  identify  himself  with  the 
community — Interests  must  include  the  farm — The  teacher  must 
know  farm  children — Teachers  must  expect  limitations — City 
methods  not  adapted  to  country — Method  of  approach — True 
friendship  sure  to  meet  response — A  practical  test  of  helpful- 
ness— The  teacher's  standards  of  conduct — The  teacher  should 
not  offend  community  standards — The  social  versus  the  legal 
point  of  view. 

XI  Organization    165 

The  three  problems  of  the  rural  teacher — The  rural  teacher 
meets  difficulties  alone — What  it  is  to  organize  a  school — What 
organization  must  accomplish — Importance  of  right  beginnings — 
Preparation  for  the  opening  day — Work  preliminary  to  organi- 
zation— Importance  of  the  daily  program — The  initiation  of  a 
definite  policy — The  school  routine — The  regulations  to  be 
adopted — The  use  of  rules — Principles  of  rural-school  classifica- 
tion— The  standard  classification  now  in  use — The  basis  of  classi- 
fication— Knowledge  of  classification  demanded  of  the  teacher — 
Questions  to  be  met  in  classification — Principles  underlying  the 
program — The  sequence  of  studies — The  distribution  of  time — 
Classes  crowded  out — Causes  producing  too  many  classes — Cor- 
relation a  remedy  for  multiplicity  of  classes. 

XII  Management  181 

The  teacher  measured  by  his  management — Rural  teacher's 
sole  responsibility  in  management — What  managing  a  school 
means — Spirit  of  cooperation  necessary — Cooperation  refers  to 
the  method  of  control — Principles  of  control  to  come  from  the 
school— The  futility  of  scolding— Good  management  secures 
obedience — Disobedience   begets    contempt    for   law — Obedience 


> 


CONTENTS 

learned  only  by  obeying — Good  management  requires  uniform* 
ity — Tendency  of  schools  to  run  down — Self-control  necessary 
to  management — An  example  of  hasty  judgment — Control  with 
reference  to  complaints — Danger  points  in  management — Bois- 
terous play  in  schoolroom — Play  should  be  out-of-doors — Whis- 
pering about  the  lessons — No  truce  with  note-writing — Unneces- 
sary confusion  indicates  poor  management — A  cure  for  ques- 
tions— Injury  to  public  property  to  be  made  good — American 
tendency  toward  vandalism — Children's   morals   to  be  guarded. 

XIII  Good  Teaching 197 

Teaching   the  highest   function   of   the   school — Meeting  the 

child  on  his  own  plane — Need  of  teaching  how  to  study — The 
German  method — Good  teaching  encourages  the  child — The  value 
of  good  cheer — The  contagion  of  interest — The  point  of  contact 
with  the  child — Effects  of  point  of  view — Principles  governing 
the  recitation — The  recitation  must  have  life — Every  pupil  must 
take  part — Each  to  receive  his  share  of  attention — The  question 
as  a  method  of  teaching — Questioning  a  fine  art — Principles  of 
good  questioning — The  recitation  demands  high  standards — 
Distractions  fatal  to  the  recitation — Physical  conditions  a  fac- 
tor— Importance  of  teacher's  attitude — Good  teaching  requires 
careful  assignment. 

Part  IV 

CONSOLIDATION  AND  RURAL-SCHOOL 
EFFICIENCY 

XIV  The  Movement  Toward  Consolidation 215 

Changes      necessitating      consolidation — Loss      in      efficiency 

through  small  schools — Origin  and  extent  of  consolidation — 
Hopeful  signs — Leading  educators  support  the  movement — Not 
a  fad — Present  status — Methods  of  changing  to  consolidated 
system — Legislation  bearing  on  it — Consolidated  and  union 
schools — Consolidation  not  limited  by  locality — Not  a  panacea — 
One-room  schools  not  to  be  neglected. 

XV  The  Consolidated  Rural  School 228 

The  three  types  of  rural  schools — Place  of  district  schools — 

Union  schools  not  the  highest  type — Looking  forward  to  con- 


CONTENTS 

solidated  type — Consolidation  allows  grading — Grading  provides 
goal  for  pupils — The  waste  in  very  small  classes — Better  dis- 
tribution of  teaching  time — Consolidation  allows  extension  of 
curriculum — Better  buildings  and  equipment — Additional  facil- 
ities required  by  new  subjects — Consolidated  schools  demand 
better  teachers — Better  supervision  in  these  schools — Consoli- 
dated schools  keep  pupils  longer — Economy  not  the  reason  for 
consolidation — A  comparison  of  relative  cost — Cost  not  the  true 
measure — Response  of  patrons  to  advantages  of  consolidation — 
Valid  criticisms — Universal  loyalty. 

XVI  The  Consolidated  School  and  the  Community 246 

Danger    from    social    stagnation — Little    meeting    in    social 

groups — Social  opportunities  lacking  for  young  people — Social 
lure  of  the  city — Moral  dangers  growing  out  of  social  stagna- 
tion— Lapses  due  to  lack  of  social  meeting  places — The  school 
the  natural  social  center — Only  the  consolidated  school  equal  to 
social  demands — Ready  response  of  the  people — Illinois  play 
festivals — Social  center  in  an  Indiana  consolidated  school — The 
John  Swaney  school  as  a  neighborhood  center — To  supply  a 
social  center  a  chief  function  of  consolidated  school. 

XVII  The  Rural  High  School 258 

Growth  of  the  American  high  school — The  high  school  still 

rare  in  rural  communities — High-school  training  necessary  for 
farm  children — Free  high  schools  not  generally  accessible — Rural 
high  schools  follow  consolidation — The  township  high  school  not 
the  solution — The  county  high  school  not  accessible — The  curri- 
culum of  the  rural  high  school — Louisiana  agricultural  high- 
school  course — Curriculum  of  Colebrook  Academy — Disciplinary 
subjects  omitted — Equipment  of  the  rural  high  school — Exam- 
ples of  successful  rural  high  schools — The  Farragut,  Tennessee, 
high  school — The  Manassas,  Virginia,  high  school — Outlook  for 
the  rural  high  school. 

XVIII  The  Consolidated  Building  and  Equipment 272 

'f      Consolidation  is  improving  buildings — Many  still  too  small — 

The  high  school  to  be  anticipated  in  building — Necessity  for 
ample  grounds — Building  to  be  of  permanent  material — Mistake 
of  economizing  in  equipment — The  three-teacher  building — The 
basement — Heating — Water      supply — Lighting      system — Larger 


CONTENTS 

buildings — Gymnasium — School  buildings  more  costly — ^The 
newer  branches  increase  the  expense — Taxation  burden  not  over- 
heavy — The  site  for  a  consolidated  school — Donations  not  to 
influence  selection  of  site — ^Value  to  community. 

XIX  How  TO  Effect  Consolidation 291 

Factors  interfering  with  consolidation — Dollars  versus  edu- 
cation— False  virtues  ascribed  to  district  school — Failure  to  see 
that  times  have  changed — Leaders  misunderstood  and  mis- 
judged— Conditions  fundamental  to  consolidation — Mistake  of 
attempting  the  impossible — The  necessary  financial  foundation — 
County  or  township  better  unit  than  local  district — A  prelim- 
inary campaign  necessary — County  superintendant  natural  leader 
of  campaign — Three  important  groups  of  influences — Teachers 
most  powerful  influence  for  consolidation — Teachers  enthusiastic 
once  they  understand  it — Arguments  to  be  used  in  the  cam- 
paign— Fundamental  weaknesses  in  district  school — Consolidated 
schools  also  hold  pupils  better — One-room  school  does  not  lead 
to  more  education — Campaign  must  be  suited  to  local  condi- 
tions— Value  of  public  meetings — Important  influence  of  the 
first  consolidated  school — Selecting  the  right  superintendent. 

XX  The  Transportation  of  Pupils 308 

Success  of  consolidation  dependent  on  public  transportation- 
Public  distrust  of  transportation  not  well  founded — Four  im- 
portant factors — Difficulty  of  mapping  routes — Unreasonable  pa- 
trons— The  length  of  the  route — Good  roads  a  factor  in  length 
of  route — Transportation  largely  dependent  on  good  roads — 
Present  tendency  to  improve  roads — Better  methods  of  road 
building — The  automobile  as  a  means  of  transportation — 
Qualifications  required  of  any  conveyance — The  care  of  school 
wagons — School  wagons  to  be  owned  by  the  corporation — 
Qualifications  of  the  driver — The  driver  and  his  schedule — Typi- 
cal schedules  made  by  drivers — Driver's  contract  and  bond. 

Part  V 
RURAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

XXI  The  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools 329 

Waste   from   lack   of   supervision — Rural   schools   especially 

need  supervision — County  superintendent  and  supervision — ^Too 


CONTENTS 

great  a  territory  to  cover — Lack  of  clerical  help;  many  duties — 
Low  salary  a  handicap — Discrimination  against  county  superin- 
tendent on  salary — County  superintendent  chosen  by  political 
methods — Length  of  term  too  short — Office  should  be  freed 
from  limitations — Appointment  by  non-partisan  board — Qualifica- 
tions for  the  office  to  be  advanced — Scholastic  training — Sym- 
pathy with  country  life — Opportunities  ahead  of  the  county 
superintendent — County  superintendent  must  be  given  assist- 
ance— Beginnings  of  industrial  supervision — Success  of  the 
plan — Growth  of  industrial,  supervision — New  subjects  make 
closer  supervision  necessary — The  state  superintendent  an  im- 
portant factor  in  supervision — Special  state  supervisors — Hope- 
ful outlook  for  rural  supervision. 

XXII  Financial  Support  347 

Willingness  to  pay  a  test  of  appreciation — Present  rural  pros- 
perity— The  rural  school  has  not  shared  prosperity — The  poverty 
of  the  rural  school — Unsuitable  equipment  and  salaries — Humil- 
iating comparisons — Efficiency  dependent  on  salary — Signs  of 
improvement — Economic  basis  not  lacking — Methods  of  levying 
school  tax — Local  taxation — Larger  taxing  unit  desirable — State 
aid  to  schools — A  combined  county  and  state  system  best — Taxes 
depend  on  public  sentiment — Need  of  an  educational  revival. 

XXIII  The  Cabe  of  Buildings  and  Grounds 364 

Factors  demanding  change  of  methods — Rural  teachers   and 

janitor  service — Whole  of  teacher's  time  and  energy  belong  to 
teaching — Time  required  for  preparation  or  recreation — Teach- 
ing an  unhealthful  occupation  at  best — Better  hygienic  standards 
require  additional  janitor  service — Modern  buildings  demand 
more  care — Care  required  by  school  grounds — Loss  of  efficiency 
through  teacher- janitors — Health  endangered  by  neglect — Other 
defects  from  lack  of  oversight — Equipment  and  apparatus  out 
of  order — Need  of  expert  care  of  heating  apparatus — Employing 
the  janitor — Provisions  of  janitor's  contract. 

XXIV  The  One-Room  School , 379 

The  one-room  school  still  a  necessity — Capable  of  improve- 
ment— Need  for  a  standard  of  efficiency — Standardizing  rural 
schools — The  Illinois  plan — Requirements  of  a  standard  school — 
Standards    in    Cie    school — Standards    for    superior    schools— 


CONTENTS 

School  equipment — The  curriculum — Possibilities  of  the  one- 
room  school — Requirements  of  buildings — The  floor — Black- 
boards— School  furniture — Schoolroom  heating — Need  of  a  base- 
ment— Decorating  the  schoolroom — Care  of  school  belongings — 
The  school  library — Hygienic  conditions — The  water  supply — 
Necessary  equipment — Attractive  surroundings — School  yard, 
trees  and  shrubs — School  gardens — The  playground — The  school 
as  a  social  center — These  demands  both  reasonable  and  feasible. 

XXV  School  Hygiene  400 

New  interest  in  public  health — Medical  inspection  of  schools — 
Rural  school  to  set  health  standard — Low  hygienic  standards — 
Duty  of  school  toward  health — The  air  of  the  schoolroom — 
Effects  of  open-air  schools — Air  space  required — ^Ventilation  and 
disease — Effects  of  temperature — Hygiene  and  cleanliness — 
Dusting — Water  and  drinking  utensils — The  hygiene  of  light- 
ing— Attention  to  commonplace  things — Indiana  State  Board  of 
Health  requirements. 

XXVI  Personal  Hygiene 415 

Personal  nature  of  hygiene — Theory  versus  practise — Health 
the  right  of  the  child — As  the  twig  is  bent — Hygiene  of  the 
mouth — Adenoids — Diseased  tonsils — Hygiene  of  bathing — Hy- 
giene of  food — Hygiene  of  the  eye — Bodily  postures — Making 
instruction  effective — The  teacher's  health — Teacher's  liability  to 
disease — Conditions  of  physical  strain — The  teacher's  eye  de- 
fects— Nutrition  and  the  teacher's  health — The  teacher's  margin 
of  safety — Health  and  efficiency. 

XXVII  The  Playground 428 

Country  life  and  play — Rural  children  do  not  know  how  to 
play — Why  play  is  so  necessary — Play  a  moral  safeguard — Evils 
resulting  from  lack  of  play — Children  should  be  taught  to  play — 
The  school  playground — Grounds  necessary  for  rural  schools — 
Placing  of  the  school  building — Preparation  of  the  play- 
grounds— Play  apparatus — The  sand  bin — School  swings — The 
see-saw — The  slide — Installation  of  the  slide — The  horizontal 
bar — Equipment  for  games — Indoor  baseball — ^Volley  ball — The 
running  track — Jumping  pits — Cost  of  apparatus  and  how  met— 
The  teacher  must  know  plays  and  games. 


CONTENTS 

Part  VI 

THE  OUTLOOK  FOR  RURAL  EDUCATION 

XXVIII  The  New  Education 447 

Greatness  of  American  enterprise — Magnitude  of  our  school 

system — Origin  of  our  public  schools — Early  educational  prog- 
ress— Profound  changes  now  under  way — A  new  interest  in 
education — Present  need  of  leadership — The  teacher's  need  of 
vision — Vital  questions  demanding  answer — Why  we  must  an- 
swer such  questions — What  is  the  new  education — Crucial  ques- 
tions asked  of  education — Changing  meaning  of  education — 
Dawn  of  present  concept  of  education — Influence  of  democracy 
on  education — New  demand  for  efficiency — Education  the  road 
to  efficiency — Practical  meaning  of  efficiency — Education  and  vo- 
cations— An  increased  amount  of  education  demanded — Effects 
upon  the  rural  school — Practical  subjects  winning  place — New 
standards  of  teaching — The  teacher's  position  of  power. 

XXIX  The  Promising  Future 463 

Future  of  rural  education  promising — Rural  schools  the  means 

of  progress — Rural  schools  now  the  center  of  interest — Recent 
legislation  promoting  rural  education — Farmers  awakening  to 
opportunity  of  rural  schools — Education  for  farm  must  be  had 
in  rural  schools — Rural  school  of  future  to  attract  boys  and 
girls — Consolidated  school  to  be  the  typical  rural  school — Rural 
school  to  conserve  health — Future  school  to  promote  good 
housing — Dress  to  receive  attention — Rural  school  to  aid  farm- 
ing— Rural  school  to  minister  to  art  and  recreation — To  culti- 
vate the  esthetic  impulse — The  rural  school  to  become  a  center — 
Rural  schools  to  secure  better  teachers — Rural  schools  a  good 
investment. 

XXX  Present  Opportunities  476 

Need  of  wise  action — All  forces  needed — Dangers  from  dis- 
couragement— Dangers  from  taking  success  for  granted — All 
objections  to  be  met  fairly — Teachers  the  most  powerful  fac- 
tor— The  public  require  information — 1  eachers  nust  themselves 
be  informed — Knowledge  of  school  buildings— Knowledge  of 
new    legislation — Knowledge    of    consolidation — Importance    of 


CONTENTS 

county  superintendent  in  rural  progress — No  place  for  the  ultra- 
conservative — The  part  of  the  state  superintendent  and  his  super- 
visors— Influence  of  the  press  for  rural  education — Part  taken 
by  the  federal  government — The  outlook. 

Bibliography    491 

Index   501 


'      _  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PACK 

The  Consolidated  Rural  School        ....   Frontispiece 

The  Wheat  Cradle  of  Earlier  Days 4 

The  Twentieth-Century  Reaper  at  Work     ....  5 

Modern  Farming  in  the  Middle  West 10 

A  Department  That  Should  Be  Represented  in  Every 

Rural  School 54 

New  Center  of  Correlation  in  Rural-School  Curriculum  64 

A  Practical  Lesson  in  Agriculture 65 

A  Manual  Training  Class  and  What  It  Made    ...  96 

A  High  School  Class  in  an  Agricultural  Laboratory      .  96 

Judging  Poultry  at  a  Rural  School 97 

Coop  and  Brooder  Made  by  Boys  of  a  Consolidated  School  97 

Lester  Bryant,  Champion  Boy  Corn  Grower        .       .       .  106 

District  School  Building 216 

State  Superintendents  Leaving  Crawfordsville,  Indiana  217 

An  Old  Log  Schoolhouse 217 

Consolidated  School  at  Twin  Falls,  Idaho  ....  230 

Indiana  State  Champion  Basket  Ball  Team        .       .       .  250 

Rural  High-School  Orchestra 250 

A  Hurdle  Race  by  Rural  Schoolboys 251 

A  Consolidated  Building       .     • 256 

A  Rural  Community  Center 256 

Judging  Cattle  at  a  Rural  School 260 

Judging  Horses  at  a  Rural  School 260 

The  Farm  Boy 261 

The  Bad  Road 314 

Changing  Bad  Roads  into  Good 314 

The  Way  the  Old  District  School  Sends  Its   Pupils 

Home 315 

One  of  the  Best  Types  of  School  Hacks        ....  315 

A  Model  District  School 384 

Modern  District  Schoolroom 385 

Getting  a  Drink 408 

The  Modern  Way 408 

The  Whiting  School  Playground 438 

Transportation  by  Trolley 468 

Farmers  and  Farmers'  Boys  Judging  Corn  ....  469 
School  Children  and  Progressive  Farmers  Meeting  Corn 

Extension  Train 469 


BETTER  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


PART  I 

THE  DEMAND  FOR  BETTER 
RURAL  SCHOOLS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  NEW  OUTLOOK 

Almost  three  centuries  have  passed  since  the  American 
common-school  system  had  its  birth.  During  all  this 
time  the  rural  school  has  been  an  important  part  of  that 
school  system  and  a  significant  factor  in  our  country's 
history.  From  the  beginning  our  people  have  deeply  be- 
lieved in  education,  and  have  often  sacrificed  much  to 
obtain  its  advantages.  When  the  pioneers  have  pushed 
out  to  occupy  new  territory,  they  have  never  failed  to 
take  the  school  with  them.  Hardly  have  the  cabin  homes 
been  erected  before  the  rural  schoolhouse  has  appeared. 
Born  in  the  travail  of  poverty,  and  nourished  not  infre- 
quently through  sacrifice  almost  of  the  very  necessities  of 
life,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  rural  school  has  secured 
such  a  hold  on  our  affections. 

In  the  early  rural  school  were  taught  the  "three  R's"  of 
the  older  day — the  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  that 
Early  school  con-  constituted  the  school  training  of  the 
^tions  pioneers.    The  education  received  was 

meager  enough,  but  it  served  its  day.  For  the  life  to  be  met 
in  those  times  demanded  a  rugged  muscular  endurance 
and  the  physical  daring  to  be  developed  in  the  actual  strug- 
gle for  a  livelihood  rather  than  in  schools.  And  few  of 
that  generation  outside  the  learned  professions  possessed 

X 


2  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

an  education  extending  beyond  the  simple  rudiments  ob- 
tained in  the  rural  school  or  the  scarcely  more  advanced 
schools  of  the  villages.  All  honor  to  these  hardy  pio- 
neers, the  fearless  men  and  women  vv^ho,  lacking  many  of 
the  educational  opportunities  which  their  children  and 
grandchildren  have  had,  were  still  able  to  lay  so  deep  and 
sure  the  foundations  of  our  nation ! 

The  old-time  rural  school  occupied  a  large  place  in  the 
social  as  well  as  the  intellectual  life  of  the  entire  com- 
The  social  side  of  munity.  For  it  was  the  center  of 
old-time  schools  much  truly  educational  activity  be- 
sides the  formal  exercises  of  the  school.  Here  were  held 
the  neighborhood  spelling  schools,  attended  and  enjoyed 
by  old  and  young  for  miles  around.  Here  the  neighbor- 
hood debating  society  held  its  fortnightly  meetings  dur- 
ing the  long  winter  periods,  and  discussed  the  great  so- 
cial and  political  questions  that  were  agitating  the  young 
nation.  School  "exhibitions"  afforded  opportunity  for 
training  the  oratorical  powers  of  the  ambitious  youth 
who  was  later  to  win  renown  in  the  legislature  or  in  the 
halls  of  congress.  The  "singing  school"  was  organized 
for  the  lovers  of  music,  and  the  "ciphering"  match  was 
held  for  such  as  were  ambitious  to  display  their  mathe- 
matical prowess.  Here  both  old  and  young  assembled  to 
the  jingling  tune  of  the  winter  sleigh-bells  and,  amid  song 
and  speech  and  laughter,  joined  in  a  merry  time.  Here 
new  acquaintances  were  made,  old  friendships  renewed, 
courtships  begun,  and  a  thousand  other  advantages  at- 
tained which  are  impossible  without  a  common  neighbor- 
hood meeting-place  and  social  center.  The  memory  of 
the  "little  red  schoolhouse"  will  rightly  long  be  cherished 
among  us  as  one  of  our  dearest  possessions  from  the 
earlier  days. 


THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  3 

But  the  age  and  conditions  that  gave  birth  to  the  old- 
time  rural  school  have  passed  away  never  to  return.  The 
Environment  of  rural  school  had  its  origin  at  a  time 
pioneer  schools  when  the  nation  was  small  and  strug- 
gling, and  when  poverty  stared  almost  every  family  in  the 
face.  It  grew  up  while  the  battle  was  yet  being  waged 
to  wrest  a  living  from  the  untamed  forest  or  the  reluctant 
virgin  prairies.  The  early  rural  schoolhouse  not  infre- 
quently looked  out  on  roving  bands  of  Indians  bent  on  no 
peaceful  errands.  And  its  echoes  were  now  and  then 
awakened  by  the  howl  of  the  wolf  and  the  cry  of  the 
panther.  It  was  built  of  logs  cut  from  the  near-by  forest ; 
its  windows  were  of  greased  paper,  for  no  glass  was  to 
be  had.  The  benches  were  made  of  ax-hewn  slabs  rest- 
ing  on  wooden  posts,  and  were  innocent  of  backs.  The 
room  was  heated  by  a  fireplace  occupying  the  rear  of  the 
building.  A  rough  desk  and  chair  for  the  master,  a  bunch 
of  quills  for  the  making  of  pens,  and  the  omnipresent 
birch  within  his  easy  reach  completed  the  equipment  of 
the  school.  Truly  a  primitive  school,  but  it  belonged  to 
a  pioneer  day  and  was  a  worthy  representative  of  the 
rugged  life  of  its  times. 

Since  those  times,  however,  our  nation  has  gone 
through  a  marvelous  social  and  industrial  transforma- 
Changes  in  indus-  tion.  The  farmer,  who,  in  the  earlier 
trial  conditions  Jays,  toiled  and  sacrificed  to  send  his 
son  to  the  little  district  school,  himself  traveled  in  the 
lumbering  stage-coach  when  he  made  a  journey;  to-day 
he  rides  in  his  automobile,  on  the  interurban,  or  on  the 
limited  express,  enjoying  every  comfort  found  in  his  own 
home.  At  that  day  he  broke  his  ground  with  a  wooden- 
share  plow,  planted  his  corn  by  hand  and  cultivated  it 
with  a  hoe ;  now,  he  has  the  gang-plow,  the  check-rower 


4  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

and  the  riding  cultivator.  Then,  he  cut  his  grain  with  a 
cradle  and  threshed  it  with  a  flail;  now,  he  drives  the 
self-binder  and  has  his  threshing  done  by  the  steam- 
driven  self-feed,  automatic-stacker  thresher.  At  that 
time,  his  house  was  built  of  logs,  heated  by  a  fireplace 
and  lighted  with  tallow  candles;  to-day,  his  home  is 
roomy  and  modern,  heated  by  furnace  or  steam,  well 
lighted,  well  furnished  and  abreast  of  the  times.  Then, 
when  the  season  was  not  too  busy,  he  could  meet  and 
talk  with  his  neighbor  perhaps  once  a  fortnight  or  once 
a  month ;  now,  his  telephone  connects  him  not  only  with 
all  his  neighbors,  but  with  all  the  great  world  outside. 
Then,  if  perchance  he  found  time  to  go  to  the  post-office, 
he  received  a  small  local  paper  once  a  week;  now,  the 
daily  papers,  the  farm  journals  and  other  magazines  are 
delivered  each  morning  at  his  door.  In  those  days  he 
had  the  family  Bible  and  a  scant  half-dozen  other  books 
to  read ;  now,  he  has  a  library  in  his  home.  Then,  the 
little  rural  school  to  which  he  sent  his  son  would  furnish 
him  with  an  education  equal  to  that  possessed  by  others 
of  his  day ;  but  now,  such  a  school  leaves  him  far  below 
the  average  of  present-day  education,  and  not  adequately 
equipped  for  his  life  and  work  on  the  farm. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  schools  which  served  the  pur- 
pose well  during  the  last  century  will  not  now  suffice. 
Times  have  changed.  The  world  is  on  the  move.  New 
standards  have  arisen,  and  new  demands  are  in  force. 
We  no  longer  go  to  war  with  the  old  flint-lock  or  the 
Springfield,  but  with  an  automatic  machine  that  will 
shoot  several  times  a  second  for  hours  without  ceasing. 

Physicians  are  yet  practising  who  were  able  to  enter 
on  their  professions  with  no  schooling  worthy  of  the 
name.    One  such  doctor  has  just  died,  after  thirty  years* 


a* 


THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  5 

practise  of  medicine.  His  sole  preparation  was  a  few 
months'  study  of  veterinary  medicine.  He  found  it  more 
profitable  to  practise  on  people  than  horses,  and  there 
was  no  law  to  prevent.  Before  he  could  enter  on  the 
practise  of  medicine  to-day  he  would  be  required  in  most 
states  to  have  four  years  at  high  school;  and  in  some 
states  in  addition  to  spend  from  two  to  four  years  in 
college;  and  finally  three  or  four  years  in  the  medical 
school.  Similar  changes  have  come  about  in  the  require- 
ments for  law,  the  ministry  and  commercial  occupations. 
And  the  trades  and  other  industrial  vocations  also  de- 
mand a  correspondingly  increased  degree  of  preparation 
and  skill. 

But  perhaps  the  greatest  changes  of  all  have  come  in 
the  field  of  agriculture.  It  means  much  more  to  be  a 
New  standards  in  farmer  now  than  even  a  generation 
agriculture  ago.    The  difference  is  at  least  as  great 

as  in  the  case  of  the  doctor,  the  lawyer,  or  the  worker 
in  a  technical  trade.  Land  has  doubled,  trebled,  or  quad- 
rupled in  value,  while  at  the  same  time  losing  something 
of  its  original  productivity.  It  must  therefore  be  so 
farmed  as  to  overcome  this  loss,  and  return  a  fair  interest 
or  rent  on  a  valuation  of  from  one  hundred  to  two  hun- 
dred dollars  an  acre. 

The  successful  farmer  must  be  something  of  a  scientist. 
He  must  master  the  principles  underlying  the  rotation  of 
crops.  He  must  know  the  nature  of  the  different  soils 
and  their  adaptability  to  the  various  plant  products.  He 
must  understand  the  cultivation  and  growth  of  the  differ- 
ent grains,  grasses  and  vegetables.  He  must  be  familiar 
with  the  weeds  and  the  insects  that  prey  on  his  fields.  He 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  breeding  and  the  care  of 
stock.    He  must  be  a  business  man,  and  understand  the 


6  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

markets  for  his  grain  and  his  stock.  He  should  also  be 
a  mechanic,  and  understand  the  building,  draining  and 
other  improvements  necessary  to  the  farm. 

The  old  type  of  rural  school  can  not  prepare  for  the 
problems  of  the  modern  farm.  It  has  therefore  had  its 
Farm  children's  day.  It  belongs  with  the  period  of 
need  of  education  home-made  shoes,  the  scythe  and  the 
stone  churn.  It  is  not  capable  of  supplying  the  educa- 
tion required  by  the  twentieth-century  rural  boy  or  girl. 
They  need,  and  have  a  right  to,  a  better  education  than 
their  parents  or  grandparents  had.  They  require  a  prep- 
aration that  will  fit  them  to  understand  and  carry  out  all 
the  problems  of  successful  present-day  farming.  They 
should  also  have  their  interests  broadened  and  their 
minds  developed  through  a  knowledge  of  the  world's 
great  literature,  its  science,  its  history,  its  art  and  its 
music.  Given  material  surroundings  and  equipment  al- 
most infinitely  in  advance  of  those  possessed  by  the 
former  generation,  they  must  also  be  given  the  mental 
training  to  match,  else  they  will  find  themselves  handi- 
capped in  the  presence  of  the  new  conditions,  and  will 
desert  the  farms  for  other  lines  of  occupation. 

The  farmer's  school  has  always  been,  and  should  con- 
tinue to  be,  the  rural  school.  But  it  must  be  a  rural 
scnool  that  is  abreast  with  the  times,  and  not  one  on  the 
level  of  a  former  century.  It  must  keep  step  with  the 
progress  that  is  taking  place  in  other  lines,  and  with  the 
new  demands  being  made  on  agriculture.  It  must  be  able 
to  educate  the  children  of  to-day  for  the  farms  of  to-day. 
The  rural  school  must  be  able  to  offer  the  farm  child  aj 
good  an  education  as  that  available  to  the  town  or  city 
child,  though  this  education  will  of  necessity  be  in  part  a 
different  education. 


THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  7 

Can  the  rural  schools  as  they  average  over  our  country 
now  measure  up  to  the  new  requirements  being  placed 
Can  the  rural  °"  them?     Have  they  kept  pace  with 

school  meet  its  de-  other  lines  of  social  and  industrial 
"^^"^^"  progress?     Is  the  education  afforded 

the  farm  boy  and  girl  in  our  present  rural  schools  as 
much  better  than  that  given  their  parents  or  grandparents 
as  the  present  demands  on  education  are  greater  than  the 
former  demands  ?  Is  the  rural  child  now  receiving  rela- 
tively as  good  an  education  as  the  rural  child  of  the 
earlier  day  ?  Has  he  provided  for  him  as  good  an  educa- 
tion as  the  town  child  receives?  Is  the  rural  school  as 
good  as  the  rural  community  can  afford? 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  such  questions  will  in  the  main 
have  to  be  answered  in  the  negative.  It  is  true  that  in 
Rural  and  town  some  regions  of  the  country  the  rural 
schools  compared  schools  have  been  improved  and  de- 
veloped until  they  now  afford  at  least  the  rudiments  of 
an  excellent  education  for  the  children  of  the  farm.  But 
this  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  The  old  type 
of  rural  school  is  altogether  too  common  in  most  parts 
of  the  country.  While  the  town  and  city  schools  have 
been  advancing  in  efficiency,  the  rural  school  has  in  too 
many  cases  stood  where  it  was  a  lifetime  ago.  The  town 
schools  of  the  present  day  are  generally  housed  in  excel- 
lent buildings,  planned  both  for  architectural  beauty  and 
adaptability  to  the  work  of  the  school.  The  equipment 
is  modern  and  efficient.  The  rooms  are  well  decorated, 
and  made  attractive  and  homelike.  Libraries  are  stocked 
with  books,  and  laboratories  adequately  supplied  with 
apparatus  and  material.  The  schools  are  well  graded  and 
managed,  trained  and  efficient  teachers  are  employed,  and 
fair  salaries  paid. 


8  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

But  it  is  not  so  in  the  rural  school.  Too  many  rural 
schools  are  still  sheltered  in  the  pitiful  little  one-roomed 
Present  status  of  building,  ugly  in  appearance,  heated  by 
rural  schools  an  unprotected  stove  in  the  middle  of 

the  room,  lighted  by  opposite  rows  of  shadeless  win- 
dows, and  ventilated  hardly  at  all.  The  grounds  are 
usually  as  desolate  as  the  building,  covered  with  un- 
mown  grass  and  weeds,  and  destitute  of  shade  trees. 
The  interior  of  the  room  is  often  dingy  and  dirty,  the 
windows  and  floor  are  unwashed,  and  the  walls  are 
without  decorations.  There  are  but  few  books,  often  no 
apparatus,  and  not  infrequently  a  shortage  of  all  supple- 
mental supplies  necessary  to  teaching.  The  school  is  of 
necessity  poorly  classified,  since  the  one  teacher  has  all 
the  grades  under  her  charge.  The  teacher  is  usually 
overworked,  often  undertaking  to  hear  as  many  as  thirty 
recitations  a  day.  She  has,  as  a  rule,  had  but  little  ex- 
perience, and  no  special  training  for  her  work.  Too 
often  she  comes  from  a  town  or  city  home  with  no  knowl- 
edge of  farm  life  or  conditions,  and  little  interest  in  coun- 
try boys  and  girls.  Thus  the  gap  between  the  farm  home 
and  the  school  is  still  further  increased.  If  the  whole 
truth  be  told,  thousands  of  our  rural  schools  are  not  far- 
ing as  well  as  they  did  fifty  years  ago.  For  then  there 
were  fewer  graded  schools  and  high  schools  to  tempt  the 
best  teachers  away  from  the  district  school.  Hence  a 
good  teacher  could  often  be  kept  for  years  in  the  same 
rural  school ;  now  he  is  soon  called  to  the  town  or  city, 
and  the  rural  school  must  take  a  young  and  an  in- 
experienced teacher,  or  be  satisfied  with  those  who  re- 
main after  the  city  has  had  its  pick. 

Nor  is  the  actual  amount  of  education  received  by  the 
rural  child  to-day  greatly  in  advance  of  that  of  the 


THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  9 

earlier  day.  Except  in  the  more  favored  regions  it  is  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule  for  children  to  complete 
the  eight  grades  of  the  rural  schools.  It  is  much  more 
common  for  pupils  to  drop  out  of  school  somewhere  from 
the  third  to  the  fifth  grade,  having  mastered  little  more 
than  the  "three  R's"  of  the  old-time  district  school.  They 
have  learned  to  read,  but  have  not  yet  read  enough  to 
develop  an  interest  in  good  reading.  They  know  almost 
nothing  of  their  country's  history,  or  its  form  of  govern- 
ment. In  this  age  of  science,  they  are  ignorant  of  the 
great  scientific  inventions  and  discoveries.  They  have 
learned  but  little  concerning  their  bodies,  and  the  hy- 
gienic laws  on  which  their  own  health  and  happiness  de- 
pend. They  have  received  little  or  no  instruction  bear- 
ing directly  on  the  work  of  the  farm  or  the  care  of  the 
farm  home.  With  splendid  powers  of  mind  awaiting  de- 
velopment, these  powers  are  allowed  to  go  relatively  un- 
developed through  lack  of  education.  These  children  are 
not  making  the  most  of  themselves. 

Visit  your  old  home  school  of  twenty-five  or  fifty 
years  ago.  Too  often  you  will  find  the  same  old  build- 
ing, ugly  and  small  and  weathered  and  inhospitable. 
There  you  will  see  the  same  old  battered  door  whose 
latch  you  could  then  hardly  reach ;  the  same  rickety  and 
carved  desks  where  you  sat  with  feet  not  touching  the 
floor;  the  same  cramped  and  barren  room,  ceiled  with 
boards  painted  a  dismal  drab ;  the  same  diminutive  patch 
of  blackboard,  cracked,  uneven  and  shiny;  the  same  ab- 
sence of  books  and  apparatus  for  the  school;  the  same 
meager  and  overcrowded  program,  but  now  poorly  taught 
by  an  inexperienced  and  unprepared  girl  from  a  city 
school.  The  stumbling  recitations,  the  listless  study  and 
the  futile  waste  of  precious  time  and  opportunity  are 


lo  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

pitifully  out  of  accord  with  the  spirit  of  efficiency  and 
progress  of  the  present  day. 

All  this  is  below  the  standards  of  our  times,  and  a 
grave  injustice  to  the  children  of  the  farm.    These  boys 

Farm  children  ^"^  ^^J^^  ^^^^  ^  ^^S)^^  t°  ^^  S°°^  ^^ 

have  a  right  to  education   as   that  given  to  the  chil- 

better  education        ^^^^  ^f  ^j^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^j^j^^^      ^^j^y 

notf  Are  they  less  intelligent  than  the  town  boy  and 
girl?  Are  they  less  interested  in  their  work  or  less  in- 
dustrious in  their  studies?  Do  they  not  make  as  good 
use  of  their  education?  Are  they  not  entitled  to  their 
share  of  the  happiness  and  success  which  only  a  good 
education  can  give  them  ?  There  are  no  brighter  or  more 
responsive  children  in  our  whole  school  system  than  those 
coming  from  the  farm  homes.  Yet  they  are  too  com- 
monly found  in  a  little,  insufficient  rural  school  that  has 
had  its  day,  and  that  should  pass  into  history  along  with 
the  log  cabin,  the  wooden  plow  and  the  ox  cart.  These 
rural  boys  and  girls  represent  the  best  blood,  brawn  and 
brain  of  any  group  of  American  people.  They  are  not 
afraid  to  work.  They  are  earnest  and  sincere.  They 
greatly  profit  by  a  good  education,  and  are  seriously 
handicapped  without  it.  The  nation  owes  them  a  more 
efficient  and  practical  education  than  they  are  receiving. 
This  better  service  in  the  public  schools  can  be  had  for 
our  rural  children,  and  it  will  be  given  to  them.  For  the 
The  farmer  can  farmer  is  prosperous  and  abundantly 
support  better  able  to  educate  his  children.    And  he 

schools  jg  ambitious  to  do  so  when  he  sees  the 

necessity,  and  understands  the  directions  that  improve- 
ment in  education  should  take.  Let  the  farmer  but  fully 
comprehend  how  far  his  child  is  from  having  educational 
opportunities  equal  to  those  provided  for  town  and  city 


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THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  il 

children ;  let  him  but  see  how  greatly  his  child  is  handi- 
capped by  lack  of  training  with  reference  to  the  life  and 
work  of  the  farm ;  let  him  but  understand  how  far  the  old 
^ype  of  district  school  is  behind  the  times ;  and  he  will  be 
the  first  to  seek  a  remedy  for  these  conditions.  The 
farmer  has  the  wealth,  and  will  not  hesitate  to  see  it 
taxed  for  the  education  of  his  children;  he  has  the  intel- 
ligence rightly  to  Value  true  education ;  he  will  finally  be 
the  most  potent  factor  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  rural 
school  when  he  has  come  to  see  its  great  possibilities. 

Indeed  the  farmer  is  already  awakening  to  the  new 
necessities  for  education  for  his  children.  This  is  seen 
in  the  alarming  tendency  of  farmers  to  move  in  increas- 
ingly larger  numbers  to  the  towns  in  order  to  obtain  bet- 
ter educational  facilities.  A  recent  investigation  among 
a  large  number  of  families  who  had  deserted  farm  life 
for  the  town  showed  that  more  than  four  out  of  five  gave 
the  inefficiency  of  the  rural  school  as  the  chief  reason 
for  the  change.  These  farmers  felt  the  obligation  to  give 
their  children  an  education  equal  to  the  demands  soon 
to  be  placed  on  them,  and  saw  no  way  to  accomplish  it 
in  the  present  rural  school  as  it  exists  in  their  community. 

Grave  social  and  industrial  dangers  lurk  in  the  move- 
ment now  going  on  from  the  farms  to  the  towns 
Social  and  indus-  and  cities.  Not  the  least  of  these 
trial  dangers  Js    the    effect    on    the    middle-aged 

parents  who,  long  accustomed  to  the  life  and  work  of 
the  farm,  are  asked  suddenly  to  change  all  their  habits  of 
life.  Older  people  do  not,  at  best,  adapt  themselves  to 
new  conditions  so  easily  as  younger  ones,  and  in  this  case 
the  new  conditions  place  the  father  and  mother  at  a  de- 
cided disadvantage.  The  farmer  misses  the  interests,  the 
life,  the  activities  to  which  he  is  accustomed.    Jhere  is 


12  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

nothing  for  him  to  do,  and  trained  to  a  life  of  work,  he 
does  not  know  how  to  employ  his  new-found  leisure. 
Hence,  leisure  soon  degenerates  into  idleness  and  discon- 
tent. The  zest  is  gone  from  life,  and  health  and  longevity 
are  threatened.  The  farm  mother,  moving  to  the  town, 
misses  the  old  environment  hardly  less.  True,  she  still 
has  her  household  to  look  after,  but  the  old  duties  con- 
nected with  the  farm  home  are  gone,  and  new  pathways 
have  to  be  blocked  out.  The  old  neighbors,  friends  of  a 
score  of  years,  are  no  longer  at  hand,  and  the  clubs  and 
social  organizations  of  the  town  are  strange  and  unfamil- 
iar. Arduous  and  trying  as  was  her  work  in  the  old 
home,  Something  of  happiness  and  tranquillity  was  lost  in 
the  change  to  the  new. 

A  second  great  disadvantage  coming  from  the  urbani- 
zation of  our  people  is  the  irreparable  loss  to  the  farm 
itself.  When  the  farmer  moves  to  town  with  his  family, 
not  only  does  the  farm  lose  the  services  of  the  heads  of 
the  family — the  father  and  mother  who  are  usually  still 
in  the  working  prime  of  life — but  in  too  many  cases  it 
also  permanently  loses  the  boys  and  girls  who  are  taken 
to  town  for  their  education.  For  the  education  of  the 
town  school  does  not  lead  to  the  farm,  hut  away  from  it. 
That  this  is  true  even  of  the  smaller  towns  and  villages  is 
abundantly  proved  by  the  relatively  small  proportion  of 
its  farm-born  pupils  who  return  to  an  agricultural  career. 

The  drain  from  the  farm  is  so  great  that  for  the  present 
generation  it  has  amounted  to  about  one  per  cent,  a  year. 
Need  of  more  and  And  this  has  been  going  on  at  a  time 
better  farmers  when  the  country  has  been  urgently  in 

need  of  more  and  better  farmers,  that  through  their  in- 
creased numbers  and  efficiency  the  cost  of  living  might 


THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  13 

be  reduced ;  it  has  been  going  on  at  a  time  when  the  pro- 
fessions have  been  greatly  overcrowded,  and  do  not 
need  an  accession  of  numbers;  it  has  been  going  on  at 
a  time  when  we  already  have  too  large  a  proportion  of 
our  people  in  the  towns  and  cities  seeking  to  make  a  living 
through  selling  commodities  instead  of  producing  them; 
it  has  been  going  on  at  a  time  when  the  vocation  of  farm- 
ing has  been  offering  greater  opportunities  and  larger  re- 
wards than  ever  before  in  our  history.  And  when  it  is 
remembered  that  those  who  leave  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cation are,  on  the  average,  the  more  enterprising  and 
intelligent  of  our  rural  people,  it  also  becomes  evident 
that  there  must  be  some  lowering  of  our  farming  popu- 
lation in  quality,  as  well  as  numbers,  through  the  move- 
ment. 

It  is  true  that  there  are  many  other  factors  than  a  de- 
sire for  education  responsible  for  the  agricultural  exodus 
Other  factors  lead-  to  the  towns.  Many  of  the  very  in- 
ing  from  the  farm  fluences  that  have  made  the  life  of  the 
farm  broader  and  more  interesting  have  had  a  tendency 
to  foster  a  spirit  of  discontent  with  farm  life  and  a  desire 
for  a  more  varied  experience.  The  daily  papers  make  the 
farm  youth  familiar  with  the  life  of  the  city.  Magazines 
and  journals  familiarize  him  with  the  daring  and  re- 
wards of  great  commercial  enterprises.  Books  broaden 
the  mind  and  extend  the  interests  beyond  the  routine  of 
the  daily  farm  life.  The  automobile  and  the  train  give 
him  a  glimpse  of  the  world  of  recreation  and  pleasure. 
Natural  social  impulses  cause  him  to  shrink  from  isola- 
tion and  seek  association  with  the  people  daily  brought 
to  his  mind  through  reading  or  imagination. 

Yet  most  of  these  tendencies  are  very  closely  related  to 


14  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

a  broader  education,  and  to  the  functions  rightly  belonging 
to  the  rural  school.  The  rural  school  can,  at  its  best,  do 
The  opportunity  rnuch  to  remove  the  false  glamour 
of  the  rural  school  from  the  city  by  making  the  country 
more  attractive.  It  can  open  up  the  way  to  and  prepare 
for  a  career  in  agriculture  in  every  w^ay  comparable  with 
the  commercial  careers  open  in  the  cities.  It  can  unlock 
to  the  farm  youth  the  treasures  of  literature,  history,  sci- 
ence and  art.  It  can  afford  opportunities  for  recreation, 
amusement,  and  social  mingling  with  others  so  necessary 
to  the  development  and  happiness  of  the  young.  In  short, 
the  rural  school  occupies  a  strategic  position  in  the  life 
and  welfare  of  our  rural  communities.  It  will  be  the 
greatest  factor  in  advancing  the  agricultural  movement 
now  gathering  headway  in  the  nation,  or  else,  failing  to 
grasp  its  opportunity,  will  prove  a  stumbling-block,  and 
be  supplanted  by  town  and  village  schools. 

It  is  left  for  the  rural  school  to  join  hands  with  the 
farmer  and  offer  the  farm  boy  and  girl  a  better  education 
Encouraging  than  the  town  can  give  them — ^better 

signs  in  that  it  is  adapted  to  their  needs  and 

prepares  them  for  their  duties.  And  the  rural  school  will 
rise  to  its  opportunities.  It  is  already  rising;  indeed,  it 
has  risen  in  many  places.  Som.e  of  the  most  marvelous 
educational  advances  made  in  our  generation  have  taken 
place  in  the  rural  schools.  It  will  be  our  purpose  in  the 
following  chapters  to  describe  some  of  these  lines  of  prog- 
ress, and  show  how  they  can  be  extended  to  still  other 
rural  schools. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

I.   Why  is  the  rural  school  used  so  much  less  as  a 
social  center  now  than  formerly  ?    Will  it  be  possible  for 


THE   NEW   OUTLOOK  15 

the  school  again  to  take  up  this  function  ?  If  so,  how  can 
it  be  brought  about  ? 

2.  Why  has  the  rural  school  fallen  so  far  behind  urban 
schools  in  recent  educational  progress  ? 

3.  Is  there  any  validity  in  the  seeming  assumption  that 
rural  children  can  not  be  expected  to  have  so  good  an 
education  as  town  children?  (Economic  and  social  fac- 
tors.) 

4.  To  what  extent  do  you  think  that  the  failure  of  the 
rural  school  to  measure  up  to  its  responsibilities  is  ac- 
countable for  the  present  drift  from  the  farms  to  the 
towns  and  cities  ?  How  can  the  rural  school  be  used  as  a 
force  to  hold  young  people  to  the  country  instead  of 
driving  them  from  it? 

5.  Do  you  know  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  among 
those  over  ten  years  of  age  in  your  school  district? 
Township?    County?    State? 

6.  Make  a  comparison  of  the  school  improvements 
effected  in  the  town  and  country  schools  of  your  county 
during  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years:  (a)  in  buildings 
and  equipment;  (b)  in  curriculum;  (c)  in  requirement 
for  teachers,  and  salaries  paid.    Has  not  rural  prosperity 

-increased  at  least  as  fast  as  town  prosperity? 

7.  How  many  farmers  of  your  township  have  moved 
from  their  farms  to  town  during  the  last  five  years? 
What  are  they  now  doing  in  town?  In  how  many  in- 
stances did  they  go  to  town  for  better  school  facilities? 
Is  it  in  general  true  that  those  who  have  been  leaving 
their  farms  average  a  higher  and  more  progressive  type 
than  those  who  remain? 

8.  Do  you  think  that  country  schools  can  be  made  as 
efficient  as  town  schools?  That  country  life  can  be  made 
as  attractive  as  town  life?  If  so,  what  factors  are  re- 
quired in  each  case  to  accomplish  such  a  result  ? 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY 

Efficiency  is  the  demand  of  the  age.  This  demand  has 
been  slow  in  reaching  the  rural  schools,  but  it  is  now 
making  itself  felt.  The  pressure  for  better  facilities  for 
the  education  of  farm  boys  and  girls  is  becoming  insistent 
in  nearly  every  section  of  the  country.  Marvelous  ad- 
vance has  already  been  made  in  many  communities,  and 
large  plans  are  now  under  way  in  others.  Owing  to  the 
problems  arising  from  this  reconstruction,  it  is  worth 
while  to  ask  ourselves  what  constitutes  efficiency  in  the 
rural  schools,  how  it  is  to  be  measured,  and  how  obtained. 
How  are  we  to  tell  whether  a  particular  rural  school,  or 
type  of  schools,  is  yielding  the  highest  possible  returns? 
How  shall  we  go  to  work  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  all 
our  rural  schools  ? 

If  it  were  as  easy  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
as  that  of  an  engine  or  a  factory,  the  problem  would  be 

Difficulty  in  meas-  ^''"^P^^-  ^"*  ^"^^  '^  "°^  ^^^  ^^s^-  ^^^ 
uring  school  effi-      the  final  outcome  of  the  education  of 

*^*®"^^  a  child  can  not  be  told  until  years 

have  passed.  And  even  then,  many  factors  besides  his 
schooling  have  entered  into  his  success  or  failure.  It  is 
therefore  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  proportion  of  re- 
sponsibility which  the  school  must  bear  in  determining 
the  results  of  a  life.    But  there  are,  nevertheless,  some 

i6 


, THE   CALL  FOR  EFFICIENCY  17 

measures  that  we  can  apply  to  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
without  depending  on  the  more  remote  and  uncertain 
ones.  There  are  certain  accepted  business  principles  as 
immediately  applicable  to  the  running  of  schools  as  to  the 
operation  of  factories  or  farms. 

One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
is  its  drawing  power — the  proportion  of  those  of  school 

Drawing  power  a  ^S^  ^."  ^^^  community  who  are  found 
measure  of  effi-  within  its  walls.     Do  the  children  at- 

^^^^^y  tend  school,  or  do  they  drop  out  at  the- 

third,  fourth  or  fifth  grade,  not  having  developed  an  in- 
terest in  education  or  discovered  its  relation  to  their  wel- 
fare and  success?  Is  the  school  running  with  half  the 
attendance  it  should  have,  while  the  other  half  of  the 
boys  and  girls  are  entering  on  life  handicapped  from  the 
lack  of  what  the  school  should  be  able  to  give  them  ?  An- 
other phase  of  the  same  question  has  to  do  with  the  regu- 
larity of  attendance  of  those  who  are  enrolled.  It  costs 
as  much  to  run  the  school  when  half  or  two-thirds  of  the 
pupils  belonging  are  present  as  when  all  are.  And  the 
school  itself  will  run  much  more  satisfactorily  and 
smoothly  when  all  are  present  than  when  only  a  part 
are  in  attendance.  Here  then  is  an  important  test  of 
school  efficiency — is  the  school  able  to  command  the  full 
time  of  its  pupils,  or  do  they  remain  out  unnecessarily  or 
for  trivial  reasons  ?  Are  they  and  their  parents  ready  to 
sacrifice  if  need  be  that  the  children  may  be  at  school 
every  day,  or  is  absence  taken  lightly  and  as  a  matter  of 
course?  Is  school-going  a  serious  business  looked  upon 
seriously,  or  is  it  largely  incidental  ?  Let  us  seek  answers 
to  these  questions. 

The  full  elementary  course  of  eight  years  occupies 
about  nine  months  of  the  child's  time  each  year  from  the 


l8  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

i     % 

age  of  five  or  six  to  thirteen  or  fourteen.  And  if  the 
high  school  is  also  included,  a  corresponding  amount  of 
Time  required  for  time  each  year  will  be  required  up  to 
school  course  the  age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen.  The 

proportion  of  children  between  these  ages  who  are  in  the 
schools  will  therefore  afford  one  measure  of  the  rural 
school's  efficiency  in  attracting  and  holding  its  con- 
stituency. 

There  are  no  statistics  available  showing  the  exact  pro- 
portion of  rural  children  of  certain  ages  who  are  enrolled 
in  school,  yet  the  approximate  facts  are  known.  Count- 
ing all  schools,  both  rural  and  town  or  city,  one-quarter 
of  the  states  have  at  least  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  all  chil- 
dren between  five  and  eighteen  registered  in  school ;  an- 
other quarter  have  at  least  eighty  per  cent,  between  five 
and  eighteen  in  school;  a  third  quarter,  about  seventy- 
five  per  cent. ;  and  the  remaining  quarter,  less  than  sev- 
enty per  cent.  When  it  is  remembered  that  these  statistics 
include  all  town  and  city  schools  as  well  as  rural  schools, 
and  that  the  proportion  of  country  children  in  school  is 
frequently  less  than  half  that  of  town  children,  it  is  seen 
that  we  greatly  need  to  increase  the  drawing  power  of  the 
rural  school.  Counties  may  be  found  in  many  rich  and 
intelligent  states  where  hardly  a  score  of  children  in  the 
whole  county  annually  complete  the  work  of  the  eighth 
grade  of  the  rural  school,  and  consequently  where  very 
few  rural  pupils  are  to  be  found  in  high  school.  It  is 
probably  safe  to  say  that  our  rural  children  are  on  the 
average  quitting  school  with  not  more  than  four  out  of 
the  eight  years  of  elementary  school  work.  This  amount 
of  education  must  in  the  long  run  spell  industrial  and 
social  inferiority  for  our  agricultural  people.  Efficiency 
demands,  therefore,  that  the  rural  school  shall  be  able  to 


THE   CALL    FOR   EFFICIENCY 


19 


0      20     50     40      50     60      70     8O      90      100 

1.  VERMONT 

2.  MAINE 

3.  CONNECTICUT 

4.  COLORADO 

5  IOWA 

6  MONTANA 
7.  OHIO 

5.  MASSACHUSETTS 
9.  WASHINGTON 

10.  IDAHO 

11.  N.HAMP5HIRE 

12.  N.DAKOTA 

13.  ARIZONA 

14.  ILLINOIS 

15.  FLORIDA 

16.  OKLAHOMA 

17.  NEW  yORK 

18.  KANSAS 
IS.  RHODE  I&LANDI 

20.  NEBRASKA 

21.  UTAH 

22.  INDIANA 
Z3.  TENNESSEE 

24.  WYOMING 

25.  MICHIGAN 

26.  NEW  JERSEY 
i?7.  N.CAROLINA 
£8.  W.VIRGINIA 
25.  MISSISSIPPI 

30.  PENNSYLVANM 

31.  MISSOURI 
3Z  5.  DAKOTA 

55.  MINNESOTA 
34-.  ARKANSAS 
35.  WISCONSIN 

56.  CALIFORNIA 

37.    OREGON 
3a  DELAWARE 

39.  KENTUCKY 

40.  N.MEXICO 

41.  MARYLAND 

42.  GEORGIA 

45  S.CAROLINA 

44.  VIRGINIA 

45.  ALABAMA 

46  TEXAS 
47.   NEVADA 
4&  LOUISIANA 

Per  cent,  of  the  school  population  enrolled  in  1910.  White  indicates 
children  in  public  schools,  shaded  in  private  schools,  and  black  not  in  any 
s=^o°J-  —Courtesy  of  Russell   Sag<«.  Foundation. 


20  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

command  a  greater  supply  of  the  raw  material  of  educS-' 
lion — the  boys  and  girls  who  are  within  reach  of  these 
schools  and  suffering  for  the  want  of  what  the  school 
should  be  able  to  give  them.  A  larger  proportion  of  the 
farm  children  must  be  brought  to  enroll  in  the  rural 
school,  and  held  for  a  longer  time  under  its  influence. 

To  obtain  this  result  will  require  both  new  ideals  in  the 
organization  and  work  of  the  school,  and  the  personal  in- 
Influence  of  fluence  of  capable  and  devoted  teach- 

teacher  in  holding  ers.  Possibilities  in  these  directions 
pupils  in  school  ^j.g  suggested  by  a  typical  incident  oc- 
curring in  a  western  rural  school.  A  young  man  was  en- 
gaged to  teach  in  a  certain  district  where  there  were  two 
brothers,  fifteen  and  seventeen  years  of  age,  who  had 
dropped  out  of  school  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades  re- 
spectively. Their  parents  could  barely  read  and  write, 
and  the  boys  were  but  little  more  advanced.  Of  course 
they  had  no  notion  of  ever  again  entering  school,  but 
were  settling  down  in  sullen  doggedness  to  the  work  of 
the  old  farm,  which  showed  the  effects  of  low  standards 
and  poor  methods  of  cultivation.  Our  young  teacher 
visited  this  home  a  week  before  the  opening  of  the  term. 
He  understood  the  boys,  and  wanted  to  help  them.  He 
invited  them  to  enter  the  school.  The  boys  were  not  en- 
thusiastic. Our  young  teacher  called  again  a  few  days 
later.  He  had  thought  of  a  new  idea.  He  talked  to  the 
boys  about  the  new  studies  now  taught  in  the  rural  school. 
He  described  the  work  in  agriculture  and  manual  train- 
ing which  they  could  enter,  and  its  relation  to  their  suc- 
cess on  the  farm.  They  became  interested ;  and  they 
liked  the  young  teacher  who  cared  enough  about  them 
to  want  to  help  them.  These  boys  enrolled  in  his  school 
on  the  opening  day,  and  are  now  among  his  most  en- 


THE   CALL   FOR  EFFICIENCY 


121 


RHOOC  I50N6 

NEW   YORK 

MA3SACHU3ETT. 

MARrLANO  a 

CONNECTICUT  B 

MONTANA  B 

NEW  JERSEY 

CAUrORNIA 

WISCONSIN 

NEBRASKA 

DELAWARE 

WASHINGTON 

IOWA 

MICHia^M 

ILLINOIS 

OHIO 

PENN5Y1.VAN1, 

a  DAKOTA 

UTAH 

N.  HAMPSHIRE H 

KAN2>A&  E 

VERMONT 

MAINE 
,  COLDRAOO 

MISSOURI 
.  MINNESOTA 

N.  DAKOTA 

INDIANA 

NEVADA 
.   GEORGIA 

WYOMING 

OKLAHOMA 

VIRGINIA 

OREGON 

IDAHO 

LOUISIANA 

ARIZONA 

W  VIRGINIA 

TEXAS 

TENNESSEE 

KENTUCKY 

MftSraSIPPI 

ALABAMA 

ARKANSAS 

FLORIDA 

S  CAROLINA 

N.  CAROLINA 

N   MEXICO 


Length  of  school  year  and  average  attendance  in  each  state  in  1910, 
Each  small  square  represents  one  day  schools  are  kept  open.  Shaded  por- 
tions indicate  average  attendance. 

— Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


22  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

thusiastic  pupils,  leading  their  classes  in  agriculture  and 
manual  training,  and  making  rapid  progress  in  their 
other  studies.  This  case,  with  varying  details,  of  course, 
could  be  duplicated  in  thousands  of  other  rural  com- 
munities where  boys  and  girls  have  become  discouraged 
and  quit  school  too  soon.  Given  the  right  kind  of  teach- 
ers and  right  conditions  within  the  school,  it  would  not 
be  difficult  to  double  the  enrollment  of  the  rural  schools. 

But  increasing  the  enrollment  in  rural  schools  is  not 
all.  Efficiency  also  demands  that  the  school  year  be  made 
Length  of  school  longer  in  many  schools.  To  complete 
y*ar  the  elementary  school  course  requires 

for  the  average  child  approximately  eight  years  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty  days  each.  But  comparatively  few 
rural  schools  have  one  hundred  and  eighty  days  of  school 
a  year.  Even  counting  in  the  town  and  city  schools,  there 
are  only  nine  of  our  forty-eight  states  that  keep  their 
schools  open  for  an  average  of  nine  months  each  year, 
and  half  of  them  average  less  than  seven  months.  The 
rural  schools  in  general  average  a  school  year  not  more 
than  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  as  long  as  that  of  towns 
and  cities;  hence  we  find  the  rural  school  year  running 
from  about  four  months  in  certain  states  to  eight  months 
in  others,  and  probably  averaging  not  more  than  six 
months  for  all.  What  would  we  think  of  the  efficiency 
of  a  factory  which  had  available  the  plant  and  raw  ma- 
terial for  steady  employment,  but  which  shut  down  for 
a  half  of  each  year,  leaving  its  patronage  wanting  in  the 
product  it  was  to  supply?  Yet  that  is  what  the  rural 
school  is  doing  in  altogether  too  many  instances. 

Not  only  is  the  rural  school  year  short,  but  the  real 
attendance  year  is  shorter  still.  For  the  attendance  in 
many  schools  is  very  irregular,  with  from  a  third  to  a 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY  23 

half  of  the  pupils  absent  every  day.  In  not  more  than 
half  of  the  states  will  the  average  daily  attendance  in 
rural  schools  reach  two-thirds  of  those  enrolled ;  in  other 
states  the  daily  attendance  is  barely  more  than  half  the 
enrollment.  This  means,  of  course,  that,  on  the  whole, 
the  children  enrolled  in  the  rural  schools  come  to  school 
only  every  other  day,  or  at  best  but  two  days  out  of 
three.  It  will  manifestly  not  solve  the  problem  to  increase 
the  length  of  the  school  year.  Without  at  the  same  time 
improving  the  regularity  of  attendance.  For  this  would 
but  cause  additional  expense  without  commensurate  re- 
turns. 

The  combined  result  of  the  short  school  year  together 
with  the  short  attendance  year  is  rather  appalling.  For, 
Results  of  short  ^^*  "^  assume  that  each  rural  child  is 
time  attendance  to  complete  the  full  eight-year  ele- 
mentary course ;  because  of  the  short  year  and  irregular 
attendance,  however,  it  will  take  him  much  more  than 
eight  years  to  finish  the  course.  In  fact,  in  at  least  one- 
fourth  of  our  states,  it  would  require  fully  twenty  years 
to  complete  the  elementary  course  at  the  rate  of  attend- 
ance now  obtaining.  Even  in  such  typical  agricultural 
states  as  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Iowa,  sixteen  years 
would  be  necessary  to  complete  the  eight-year  course  with 
the  rural-school  attendance  year  what  it  now  is.  This  is 
to  say  that,  on  such  a  basis,  an  average  pupil  entering  the 
rural  school  at  the  age  of  six,  would  receive  his  eighth- 
grade  certificate  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  years.  If  he 
should  go  on  through  a  high  school  at  the  same  rate,  he 
would  have  earned  his  high-school  diploma  by  the  time 
he  was  thirty.  Of  course  this  is  preposterous,  and  ob- 
viates the  necessity  of  further  argument  to  show  the 
necessity  for  reform. 


24  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

So  much  for  our  first  measure  of  efficiency.  It  reveals 
one  of  the  greatest  weaknesses  of  our  rural-school  sys- 
tem— the  waste  of  money,  time  and 
The  waste  of  time  opportunity  through  failure  of  the 
school  to  gather  its  pupils  and  hold  them  a  sufficiently 
long  time  in  attendance.  The  situation  finds  its  analogy 
in  agriculture,  where  time  and  attention  have  recently 
been  given  to  obtain  a  more  perfect  stand  of  corn.  We 
have  come  to  see  the  folly  of  plowing,  planting  and  culti- 
vating a  field  that  has  only  two-thirds  of  the  stalks  it 
should  have.  For  this  means  a  waste  of  land,  of  labor 
and  of  returns.  So  with  the  rural  schools.  They  do  not 
have  a  sufficiently  large  "stand."  We  supply  buildings 
and  equipment,  and  employ  teachers  for  approximately 
half  the  pupils  that  should  he  in  attendance.  What  a 
lamentable  waste!  No  commercial  business  could  run 
on  this  basis  without  ending  in  bankruptcy.  Nor  can  we 
afford  to  conduct  our  schools  on  so  low  a  scale  of  ef- 
ficiency. 

A  second  great  measure  of  school  efficiency  is  the  type 
of  education  afforded.  Is  the  training  given  what  the 
The  type  of  educa-  community  most  needs  for  its  own 
tion  and  efficiency  interests  and  welfare  ?  Does  the 
school  serve  to  fit  the  pupils  into  the  concrete  activi- 
ties and  obligations  of  later  life?  Specifically,  does  the 
rural  school  make  better  farmers,  citizens  and  keep- 
ers of  homes?  Does  it  not  only  supply  the  broad  and 
general  foundations  of  knowledge  which  all  must  have, 
but  does  it  help  the  boy  in  the  problems  of  agriculture, 
stock  raising,  and  the  mechanical  work  of  the  farm  ?  Does 
it  train  the  girl  to  understand  and  care  for  the  farm 
home,  making  it  comfortable,  hygienic  and  artistic?  Does 
it  serve  to  attract  its  pupils  to  farm  life,  instead  of  driv- 


THE  CALL  FOR  EFFICIENCY  25 


KA554C>VSCTI» 


■  <9NTV  JUtaer 


11  RHOOC  ISLWO 


tANCaftAAlU, 


Pupils  in  high  schools  and  colleges  for  each  1,000  enrolled  in  elementary 
schools  in  1910.  — Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


■U  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

ing  them  from  it?  Here  again  we  may  seek  answers  to 
our  questions  from  actual  facts  and  conditions. 

The  rural  school  should  help  the  farmer  to  obtain 
greater  returns  from  the  labor  he  expends,  and  at  the 
Duty  of  the  rural  ^ame  time  aid  him  in  providing  a 
school  to  its  pa-        larger  supply  of  food  for  the  millions 

"^  who  are  dependent  on  the  yield  of 

the  soil  for  their  daily  bread.  The  farmers  are  perhaps 
the  hardest-working  and  most  frugal  of  all  our  industrial 
classes,  but  much  of  their  labor  goes  for  naught  through 
lack  of  the  knowledge  and  skill  required  for  the  largest 
returns  from  their  work.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  they 
could  double  the  profits  from  the  farms  with  little  addi- 
tional labor,  if  they  would  but  put  into  practise  as  good 
methods  of  farming  and  stock  raising  as  are  now  known 
and  easily  available  to  all.  And  the  most  natural  and  ef- 
fective way  to  put  the  farmer  into  possession  of  the  sci- 
entific knowledge  and  skill  required  is  through  the  rural 
school. 

Many  rural  schools  have  awakened  to  their  opportu- 
nity, and  are  adding  to  the  wealth  of  their  communities 
Lines  of  opportun-  ^^  introducing  better  methods  of 
ity  open  to  rural  farming.  The  great  need  for  further 
^*^  °°  work  along  these  lines  is  seen  in  a 

few  illustrations.  It  was  estimated  by  experts  that  the 
farmers  of  Indiana,  in  the  season  of  191 1  averaged  sev- 
enty per  cent,  of  a  perfect  stand  of  corn;  and  that  ap- 
proximately a  perfect  stand  could  have  been  had  through 
two  additional  expedients,  the  testing  of  the  seed  and 
better  preparation  of  the  soil  for  planting.  The  farmers 
of  Indiana  planted  5,000,000  acres  of  corn  for  that  sea- 
son's crop.  But  a  seventy  per  cent,  stand  means  that 
only  3,500,000  acres  actually  grew  corn.    Thus  the  farm- 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY  27 


n  »euTM«»o""i* 


«..  LSUI9IANA, 


aovTM  fbkMmt  RM 


NOHTM  OAilOM   JJ 


i3COMa<*|     J« 


niCNIQAM     J  S 


Per  cent,  of  population  ten  years  of  age  and  over  who  were  unable  to  read 
and  write  in  each  state  in  1910. 

— Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


28  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

ers  of  one  state  were  plowing,  planting,  cultivating,  and 
paying  interest  or  rental  for  1,500,000  acres  of  land  for 
which  they  received  no  return,  simply  because  they  had 
no  crop  growing  on  it.  The  annual  loss  to  the  farmers  of 
Indiana  from  this  one  source  amounts  to  nearly  60,000,000 
bushels  of  corn,  or  enough  when  sold  to  support  four  pub- 
lic-school systems  as  expensive  as  their  own,  or  to  build 
several  thousand  miles  of  excellent  highways.  And  be- 
sides this,  the  world,  already  paying  far  too  high  a  price 
for  food  products,  is  deprived  of  a  vast  amount  of  food 
to  which  it  has  a  right. 

Similar  illustrations  may  be  found  in  any  agricultural 
state.  The  average  corn  yield  in  Kentucky  for  1910  was 
The  rural  school  twenty-nine  bushels  to  the  acre.  More 
and  better  farming  intelligent  methods  of  farming,  to- 
gether with  but  little  more  labor  expended  on  the  crop, 
would  easily  have  doubled  the  yield.  But  an  increase  of 
even  five  bushels  to  the  acre  would  have  netted  the  state 
over  ten  million  dollars  additional  income  from  the  corn 
crop.  And  it  is  one  of  the  opportunities  of  the  rural  school 
to  show  how  to  obtain  the  increased  yield.  The  rural  school 
can  do  it,  it  is  doing  it  in  many  communities.  It  is  the 
claim  of  government  statisticians  that  the  rural  schools 
of  Canada  increased  the  wheat  yield  in  certain  regions  of 
that  country  five  bushels  per  acre  in  a  few  years'  time, 
Iowa  is  at  present  raising  less  than  forty  bushels  of  corn 
to  the  acre,  in  spite  of  an  excellent  climate  and  the  fact 
that  this  state  has  one  of  the  best  corn  soils  to  be  found  in 
the  country.  Experts  tell  us  that  Iowa  can  easily  raise 
seventy-five  bushels  to  the  acre ;  all  that  is  needed  is 
better  methods  of  farming.  This  means  that  Iowa  farm- 
ers are  annually  paying  some  200,000,000  bushels  of  corn 
as  the  price  for  the  lack  of  information  concerning  farm 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY  29 

work  and  methods  that  could  easily  be  acquired.  It  also 
means  that  the  consumers  of  food  are  paying  their  share 
in  increased  cost  of  living  for  this  ignorance  and  care- 
lessness. 

And  the  consumers  of  food  will  soon  have  to  be  reck- 
oned with  in  our  problem.  For  the  food  situation  is  be- 
The  rural  school  coming  acute.  It  is  carefully  esti- 
and  the  consumer  mated  that  our  population  is  at  pres- 
ent increasing  five  times  as  fast  as  our  food  supply.  This 
can  not  continue  indefinitely.  High  prices  are  but  an 
indication  of  a  mild  degree  of  famine.  Our  resources 
have  been  so  rich  and  our  population  so  sparse  that  we 
have  been  very  wasteful  of  our  natural  wealth  and  espe- 
cially the  wealth  of  our  soil.  But  practically  all  our 
tillable  land  is  now  under  cultivation,  or  so  large  a  per- 
centage that  the  addition  of  the  remainder  will  produce 
a  hardly  noticeable  effect.  All  this  is  to  say  that  our 
increasing  millions  must  be  fed  from  the  land  that  is 
now  under  cultivation.  Manifestly  the  only  way  to  ac- 
complish this  is  to  increase  the  productiveness  of  our 
soil.  It  is  not  only  a  humiliating  waste  of  labor  and  op- 
portunity to  obtain  less  than  half  of  what  the  soil  should 
yield  for  the  labor  we  put  on  it,  but  it  is  a  grave  injustice 
to  every  person  who  is  dependent  on  our  farms  for  his 
food.  For  there  is  only  so  much  tillable  soil  to  be  had; 
from  that  we  all  must  be  fed.  And  those  who,  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  our  population,  have  settled  on  the  land, 
must  see  to  it  that  we  are  fed ;  or  else  they  have  no  right 
to  occupy  the  soil.  They  must  be  willing  to  educate 
themselves  and  their  children  in  the  art  of  better  farming. 

And  the  signs  are  most  encouraging.  A  new  spirit  is 
entering  into  our  agricultural  work.  The  leaven  is  being 
planted.    Many  forces  are  at  work  to  educate  the  f armep 


30  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

The  federal  government  is  encouraging  improved  meth- 
ods of  farming  in  every  practical  way.     Bulletins  of 

„,      ^.       .  .     information  are  being  freely  distrib- 

Education  in  agri-  .  °  ^ 

culture  through  ru-  uted.  Educational  experts  are  trav- 
ral  schools  eling  about,  giving  instruction  in  agri- 

culture and  stock  raising  or  other  phases  of  farming. 
The  state  agricultural  colleges  are  attracting  hundreds 
of  young  farmers  to  their  courses  of  scientific  instruction, 
and  are  even  going  out  over  the  state  and  bringing  their 
instruction  to  the  very  homes  of  the  farmers.  High 
schools  are  introducing  courses  in  agriculture,  and  normal 
schools  are  opening  courses  to  prepare  teachers  for  this 
field  of  work.  But  by  far  the  greatest  factor  available 
for  the  agricultural  education  of  our  hoys  and  girls  is  the 
rural  school.  For  here  they  all  should  be  found.  Only 
a  few  ever  get  to  the  agricultural  college.  Not  a  large 
proportion  attend  even  the  town  high  school;  and  too 
many  of  those  who  do  never  return  to  the  farm.  If  the 
great  mass  of  our  farmers  are  to  be  taught  to  obtain  the 
largest  fruits  from  their  work,  and  to  return  the  greatest 
amount  from  the  soil  for  the  food  supply  of  the  world, 
this  instruction  must  be  given  in  the  rural  school.  No 
other  agency  can  reach  all  of  them. 

Supplementing  the  work  in  agriculture  in  the  efficient 
rural  school,  there  must  be  manual  training  for  the  boys 
Manual  training  in  ^n*^  domestic  science  for  the  girls  ar- 
rural  schools  ranged  with  especial  reference  to  the 

problems  of  the  farm  and  the  farm  home.  The  farmer 
is  constantly  called  on  to  exercise  his  skill  as  a  mechanic 
in  connection  with  the  buildings  and  equipment  of  ma- 
chinery of  the  farm.  No  carpenter,  cement  expert,  or 
blacksmith  is  at  hand,  and  much  time  is  lost  if  a  trip 
must  be  taken  to  the  town  shop,  or  the  matter  at  hand 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY  31 

left  unattended  to.  Every  well-equipped  farm  of  to-day 
needs  a  full  set  of  carpenter's  tools,  a  forge  for  the 
mending  of  minor  mishaps  to  machinery,  and  the  neces- 
sary appliances  for  other  mechanical  work.  But  these 
are  of  small  value  without  the  knowledge  and  skill  to  put 
them  to  practical  use.  While  the  rural  school  can  not 
hope  to  train  to  expert  skill  in  all  these  lines,  it  develops 
the  elements  of  manual  skill,  and  leads  to  interest  in  such 
occupations.  Manual  training  in  the  rural  school  is  of 
great  economic  value  to  every  farm  boy. 

Similarly  in  the  case  of  domestic  science  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  care  of  the  farm  home.  The  housewife  car- 
Domestic  science  ing  for  a  farm  home  has  a  different 
in  rural  schools  problem  from  that  confronting  the 
keeper  of  the  city  home.  A  larger  proportion  of  the  food 
is  raised  and  prepared  at  home  for  the  table  of  the 
farmer ;  there  is  less  dependence  on  canned  foods,  baker's 
bread,  ready-made  desserts,  and  all  the  other  city  de- 
vices to  lessen  the  amount  af  preparation  of  food  in 
the  home.  The  sanitation  of  the  farm  home  is  also 
a  far  greater  problem  than  in  the  case  of  the  town 
home  where  city  water,  sewers  and  garbage  wagon 
solve  some  of  the  greater  problems  of  hygiene.  The 
care  of  the  home  to  make  it  attractive  on  the  esthetic 
side  is  a  problem  that  needs  further  attention  in  the 
rural  schools.  For  the  natural  beauty  of  country  en- 
vironment, the  possibility  of  flowers,  shrubs  and  gardens 
to  make  the  surroundings  inviting  in  connection  with  the 
rural  home  have  never  had  the  attention  they  deserve. 
Likewise  should  the  girls  of  the  country  home  receive 
instruction  in  the  art  of  home  furnishing  and  decoration, 
and  all  that  goes  to  make  the  home  attractive  in  its  in- 
terior equipment.     In  fitting  girls  to  be  expert  home- 


^2  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

makers,  the  rural  school  finds  one  of  its  greatest  oppor- 
tunities. 

For  many  reasons  the  country  is  more  healthful  than 
the  city.  Yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  greater  part  of 
The  rural  school  our  rural  population  live  under  better 
and  public  health  hygienic  conditions  than  industrial 
workers  of  equal  financial  status  in  towns  and  cities. 
Certain  it  is,  at  least,  that  farmers  and  their  wives  age 
early,  that  insanity  is  at  least  as  prevalent  in  rural  disT 
tricts  as  in  the  city,  and  that  many  preventable  diseases 
show  a  higher  mortality  in  the  country  than  in  towns. 
With  all  its  natural  advantages  over  the  city,  statistics 
show  almost  as  high  an  aggregate  death  rate  for  the 
country  as  for  the  crowded  rushing  cities. 

Statistics  show  that  about  400,000  of  our  rural  popu- 
lation are  killed  each  year  by  infectious  diseases,  the  re- 
sult of  poison  by  bacteria.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  this 
sickness  and  death  could  be  prevented  by  following  sim- 
ple and  easily  taught  rules  for  hygienic  living.  It  is  one 
of  the  great  functions  of  the  rural  schools  to  teach  and 
show  the  necessity  for  following  these  rules.  The  old 
course  in  physiology  such  as  would  be  suited  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  surgeon  or  the  doctor  is  not  what  is 
needed,  but  the  simple  scientific  facts  that  have  to  do 
with  preventing  disease,  and  maintaining  the  highest  de- 
gree of  physical  health  and  efficiency. 

An  illustration  will  show  the  practical  trend  that  one 
phase  of  hygiene  may  take  in  the  rural  school.  Careful 
Teaching  of  hy-  studies  of  the  water  supply  on  many 
giene  in  rural  farms    in    the    United    States    have 

schools  shown  that  approximately  sixty  per 

cent,  of  the  farm  wells  are  polluted  by  house  and  barn- 
yard drainage,  thus  endangering  the  health  of  the  family 


THE   CALL  FOR  EFFICIENCY  3^ 

through  ignorance  or  carelessness.  Though  farm  chil- 
dren are  close  to  the  source  of  milk  supply,  thousands  of 
tests  have  shown  that  milk  is  constantly  being  used  from 
tubercular  cows,  thus  exposing  the  children  of  the  family 
— the  greatest  milk  users — to  the  danger  of  this  dread  in- 
fection at  the  age  when  they  are  most  susceptible  to  its 
ravages.  Human  and  animal  waste  is  on  most  farms 
improperly  disposed  of,  and  supplies  a  breeding  place 
for  flies,  which  transfer  filth  and  microbes  to  the  food 
eaten  by  the  family.  The  air  breathed  in  farm  homes 
during  the  winter  months  is  commonly  more  impure  than 
that  in  city  homes,  because  of  more  inadequate  ventila- 
tion. Cellars  are  frequently  damp  and  improperly 
drained,  and  the  common  drinking  cup  is  very  generally 
in  use. 

The  result  of  these  easily  remedied  unhygienic  condi- 
tions is  measured  in  the  annual  loss  of  more  than  eighty 
thousand  of  our  rural  population  through  the  ravages 
of  tuberculosis;  of  nearly  sixty  thousand  through  in- 
testinal troubles  other  than  typhoid ;  of  fifty-five  thousand 
through  various  forms  of  colds;  of  fifty  thousand 
through  pneumonia;  of  sixteen  thousand  through  ty- 
phoid ;  and  so  in  lesser  numbers  through  diphtheria,  scar- 
let fever  and  other  such  diseases.  Here,  then,  is  one 
of  the  greatest  lines  of  service  open  to  the  rural  school — 
to  teach  the  rules  of  better  living,  so  that  life  may  be 
longer,  health  and  happiness  greater,  and  physical  ef- 
ficiency more  perfect. 

A  third  measure  of  a  school's  efficiency  is  its  hold  upon 
the  loyalty  of  its  constituency.  Do  the  people  believe  in 
Loyalty  a  measure  the  school,  and  feel  a  personal  inter- 
of  efficiency  est  and  pride  in  its  welfare  ?     Have 

they  a  sense  of  ownership  in  the  school?    Do  they  look 


34  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

upon  it  as  a  paying  investment  for  the  community,  or  as 
a  forced  drain  on  its  resources? 

On  the  attitude  of  the  patrons  toward  the  rural  school 
will  depend  much  of  the  success  of  the  reforms  now  un- 
der way.  For  neither  compulsory  education  acts,  nor 
laws  governing  the  type  of  school  buildings  or  course  of 
study,  nor  any  other  legal  compulsion  can  finally  result 
in  efficient  schools.  These  may  all  be  necessary,  and  serve 
a  good  purpose.  But  not  until  the  rural  school  is  fully 
and  enthusiastically  adopted  as  the  community's  best 
ally  and  friend,  will  it  attain  full  efficiency. 

The  efficient  rural  school  is,  then,  the  one  that  wins 
its  way  into  the  confidence  of  its  patrons.  And  out  of 
this  confidence  will  arise  a  practical  loyalty  and  support 
which,  in  turn,  will  mean  new  and  greater  efficiency  for 
the  school. 

Efficiency  can  therefore  be  measured  by  the  extent  to 
which  the  school  is  able  to  fit  itself  helpfully  into  the 
conditions  of  the  community  and  serve  its  needs.  Nor 
does  this  mean  merely  the  intellectual  needs  of  the  chil- 
dren, but  all  phases  of  community  life  and  activity.  To 
illustrate : 

I  A  rural  school  in  Indiana  was  not  long  ago  half  grudg- 
ingly equipped  with  a  small  outfit  for  manual  training. 
Concrete  cases  of  The  boys  of  the  school  had  been 
service  rendered  studying  in  their  course  in  agriculture, 
the  best  type  of  chicken  coop  for  the  mother  hen  and 
her  brood.  For  manual-training  lessons,  the  boys 
were  set  at  work  making  these  coops.  The  coops 
were  taken  home  and  tried.  They  proved  service- 
able and  were  soon  in  great  demand  around  the  neigh- 
borhood. Indeed  the  demand  was  greater  than  could  be 
supplied.      The    school,    in    a    few    weeks,  sold    coops . 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY 


35 


I  WASHINCTbN 
Z  MAS5ACHU5FrT.S 
i  NEW  ^ORK 
A  CALIFORNIA 
5  CONNECTICUT 
b  OHIO 
7  NE.W  JERStr 
a   ILLINOIS 

0  COLORADO 
10  INDIANA 

1  I  RHODE.  ISLAND 

12  VERMONT 

13  NEW  MAMRSHIRE 

14  UTAH 

15  ORtGON 

J6  MONTANA 
17  MICHIGAN 
«  N  DAKOTA 
19   IDAHO 

a  Minnesota 

l\    IOWA 

ZZ  MAINE. 

U>  PENNSYLVAWIA 

tA  KAN5A6 

is  NEBRASKA 
V>  5  DAKOTA 
a  NE-VADA 

29  WiiCON&lSJ 
^9  WYOMINC 

30  ARIZONA 

31  OKLAHOMA 
52  MISSOURI 
3S  W  VIRGINIA 
M  FLORIDA 

35  DELAWARE 

36  MARYLAND 

37  TtNNE5StE 
58  TEXAS 

39  LOUISIANA 

40  NEW  MEXICO 

41  VIRGINIA 
4i  KENTTUCKY 
4i  ARKANSAS 
M  GEORGIA 
45  MI&5155\PP1 
M>  N.CAROLINA 
47  6.  CAROHNA 

^  A\-ASAMA 


\WMm\'^Mi/Mxmimm4!mm\        wmmx 


■A         xiiiy/MSY/yXtismx^MiA 


g^?^^ 


vmmmwMmmmm 


I       YmmwMm 


v/jyAiyAY/y/AX\ 


V/m^mvAmmi 


Chart  by  states  showing  the  rank  of  each  state  in  ten  educational   fea- 
tures. — Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


36  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

enough  not  only  to  pay  for  the  manual-training  outfit, 
but  also  greatly  to  increase  it.  But  best  of  all  was  the 
new  interest  aroused  in  the  school  throughout  the  com- 
munity. Here  was  something  tangible,  a  very  definite 
link  between  the  work  of  the  school  and  the  interests  of 
the  farm.  The  result  has  been  a  fully  equipped  school, 
with  a  broader  and  better  curriculum,  and  loyal  support 
on  the  part  of  an  increased  patronage.  And  this  greater 
efficiency,  which  all  originated  with  a  hen  coop,  has  ex- 
tended until  it  has  included  a  finer  school  spirit,  and  bet- 
ter work  in  all  the  studies. 

The  experience  of  a  young  teacher  in  a  Minnesota  rural 
school  illustrates  the  same  point.    When  he  entered  on 

Support  ready  ^^^  ^"^^^^  ^^  ^°""^  *^^  school  poorly 

when  returns  are  equipped,  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
assured  ^^  ^  1^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  almost  total  lack 

of  educational  spirit  in  the  community.  The  district  was 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  dairying  region.  The  young 
man  struck  an  idea.  He  prevailed  on  a  local  creamery 
to  give  the  school  a  cream  tester.  Then  he  taught  both 
the  boys  and  the  girls  how  to  use  it.  Samples  of  cream 
were  brought  from  all  the  homes.  Reports  of  the  tests 
were  sent  back  with  the  children.  Farmers  awoke  to  the 
fact  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  cream  pro- 
ducing qualities  of  cows.  They  were  astonished  to  find 
that  they  were  keeping  certain  cows  at  an  actual  loss. 
On  the  strength  of  the  school  tests  one  man  disposed  of 
ten  out  of  his  herd.  The  farmers  all  grew  interested,  and 
conducted  tests  for  themselves,  the  result  being  greatly 
increased  earnings  on  many  farms.  But  more  marked 
than  all  was  the  changed  attitude  toward  the  school. 
Loyalty  took  the  place  of  indifference,  the  tone  of  the 
work  improved  and  finally  a  new  and  modern  building 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY  2^ 

supplanted  the  old  one.  The  school  had  convinced  its 
constituency  of  its  value  in  the  community,  and  the  com- 
munity immediately  responded  by  giving  the  school  both 
moral  and  financial  support. 

This  principle  could  be  similarly  illustrated  in  thou- 
sands of  other  rural  schools  scattered  throughout  the 
Industrial  subjects  ^^^^^ry.  Nor  need  it  be  feared  that 
a  help  to  other  the   new   emphasis   being   placed   on 

studies  industrial  lines  of  M^ork  in  the  school 

will  lower  its  efficiency  in  other  subjects.  The  opposite 
is  the  case.  The  universal  experience  is  that  the  new 
life  and  greater  interest  coming  to  the  school  through 
these  practical  subjects  have  reacted  on  the  older  branches 
much  to  their  good. 

Another  fruitful  direction  in  which  the  rural  school 
is  extending  its  efficiency  is  that  of  supplying  the  com- 
The  rural  school  munity  with  a  general  neighborhood, 
as  a  social  center  or  social  center.  The  dearth  of 
amusement  and  the  poverty  of  social  meeting  places  in 
the  country  is  one  of  its  great  drawbacks,  and  a  source 
of  discontent  tending  to  draw  people  from  the  farm. 
The  rural  school  can  do  much  to  remedy  this  lack,  and 
at  the  same  time  increase  its  own  efficiency.  The  last 
few  years  have  seen  scores  of  rural  schoolhouses  and 
grounds  reconstructed  with  a  view  to  making  them  avail- 
able for  social  as  well  as  intellectual  purposes.  This 
movement  is  being  rapidly  extended  in  many  states,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  promising  forms  of  service  opening  up 
to  the  rural  school. 

It  may  be  said  that  these  new  ideals  of  efficiency  will 
demand  radical  changes  in  many  of  our  rural  schools. 
Changes  demanded  That  is  true;  and  many  of  them  need 
by  new  ideals  radical  changes.    But  the  changes  re- 


38  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

quired  are  all  a  practical  and  possible  kind,  and  only 
such  as  have  already  been  carried  out  in  many  of  the 
more  progressive  rural  schools.  Nothing  has  been  pro- 
posed that  is  not  now  in  use  in  various  schools  widely 
scattered  in  different  states.  We  shall  need  to  change 
the  rural  school  curriculum;  many  of  the  rural  schools 
will  need  to  be  consolidated;  better  buildings  must  be 
supplied;  better  trained  teachers  must  be  provided,  and 
they  must  receive  larger  salaries.  These  things  are  the 
price  of  efficiency.  They  can  be  had  by  such  rural  schools 
as  are  able  through  their  present  hold  on  the  community 
to  claim  them ;  the  school  gets  only  as  it  gives  in  return. 
How  large  numbers  of  rural  schools  increased  their  ef- 
ficiency, and  how  others  may  follow  their  example,  will 
be  more  fully  outlined  in  the  following  pages. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  What  chief  factors  other  than  those  of  the  school 
are  operating  to  educate  the  child:  (home  activities, 
community,  church,  press,  etc.)  ? 

2.  What  percentage  of  those  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  eighteen  in  your  district  who  have  not  completed  a 
full  elementary  course  of  eight  years  are  not  enrolled  in 
school?  What  causes  led  to  their  dropping  out?  How 
many  of  them  could  still  be  induced  to  go  to  school  if 
conditions  were  right  ? 

3.  What  is  the  average  percentage  attendance  in  your 
school?  In  your  county?  In  your  state?  Based  on  the 
number  of  days  your  school  is  open  each  year,  and  assum- 
ing that  eight  years  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  days  each 
are  required  to  complete  the  country  school,  how  long 
would  it  require  for  the  average  of  your  school  to  finish 
the  course?    How  long  for  your  pupil  with  the  highest 


THE   CALL   FOR   EFFICIENCY  39 

average  attendance?    For  the  one  with  the  lowest  aver- 
age attendance? 

4.  Consider  making  for  your  county  a  chart  by  town- 
ships similar  to  the  one  on  page  thirty-five  for  the  differ- 
ent states. 

5.  After  studying  the  chart,  decide  in  which  of  the 
tests  of  efficiency  your  state  ought  to  rank  higher  than 
it  does.  (Note  that  the  number  of  children  in  school  and 
the  value  of  the  school  depend  in  part  on  population  and 
the  size  of  the  state.)  What  means  would  be  required  to 
bring  about  the  improvement  you  suggest  ? 

6.  What  have  the  rural  schools  of  your  region  done  in 
any  direct  and  immediate  attempt  to  relate  their  work 
more  closely  to  the  farm  ?  What  are  the  next  steps  to  be 
taken  ? 

7.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  that  instruction  in  agri- 
culture can  not  be  made  effective  below  the  high  school. 
What  is  your  judgment  on  this  question? 

8.  Make  a  careful  analysis  of  the  loyalty  and  interest 
and  the  disloyalty  and  indifference  toward  the  school  pre- 
vailing in  your  district :  What  percentage  can  you  count 
as  loyal  and  interested?  As  disloyal  and  indifferent? 
Can  you  suggest  what  is  required  to  improve  conditions  ? 


PART  II 

THE  CURRICULUM  OF  THE 
RURAL  SCHOOL 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  OLD  CURRICULUM 

The  modern  rural  school  must  have  a  broader  and 
more  practical  curriculum  than  the  old  type  of  school. 
While  it  is  a  justifiable  boast  that  our  nation  has  a  very 
low  percentage  of  illiteracy,  and  while  certain  agricul- 
tural states  where  rural  schools  prevail  have  the  lowest 
percentage  of  all,  yet  such  a  test  for  education  will  no 
longer  serve.  It  is  well  worth  while  to  have  the  advan- 
tages of  education  so  well  distributed  that  every  citi- 
zen is  able  to  read  for  himself  concerning  the  world  in 
which  he  lives ;  and  this  is  a  great  advantage  over  former 
centuries.  But  bare  Hteracy  is  too  low  a  standard  to 
be  taken  in  our  day  as  a  measure  of  education.  The  op- 
portunities are  too  great,  and  the  demands  too  pressing 
for  this  to  be  adequate.  Our  quest  must  now  go 
farther  and  ask  to  what  extent  education  has  prepared 
for  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency.  We  must  not  be 
satisfied  that  most  of  our  people  possess  a  little  educa- 
tion, but  must  make  sure  that  they  possess  an  education 
equal  to  the  opportunities  and  demands  of  the  age. 

It  should  therefore  be  assumed  that  every  rural  boy 
and  girl  of  to-day  is  to  learn  the  simple  elements  of 
Mere  literacy  no  reading  and  writing.  It  is  a  crime 
longer  a  test  against  childhood  and  against  civili- 

zation where  it  is  otherwise.  But  we  must  next  ask  to 
what  extent  they  have  entered  into  the  waiting  heritage 

43 


44  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

of  the  world's  great  literature ;  do  they  like  to  read,  and 
do  they  know  what  and  how  to  read  ?  How  far  are  they 
acquainted  with  the  great  lessons  of  civilization  as  re- 
vealed in  history,  and  as  shown  in  the  development  of 
their  own  country?  How  familiar  are  they  with  the 
machinery  of  government  of  their  country,  state  and 
nation,  and  how  ready  patriotically  to  share  its  respon- 
sibilities? How  well  do  they  know  the  fruitful  fields 
of  modern  science,  especially  as  it  relates  to  their  own 
lives  and  bears  upon  their  line  of  work?  Have  they 
secure  in  their  possession  the  easily  available  knowledge 
of  the  science  of  agriculture  and  stock  raising  which  will 
enable  them  to  make  highly  successful  farmers?  Do 
they  understand  the  economic  principles  underlying  the 
successful  business  management  of  the  modern  farm 
and  home? 

Do  the  girls  know  not  only  the  routine  of  house- 
keeping as  learned  in  their  homes,  but  also  the  science 
that  should  guide  in  the  selection  and  preparation  of 
foods,  and  the  hygienic  care  of  their  households?  Have 
they  had  an  opportunity  to  study  the  arts  that  will 
enable  them  to  make  their  homes  beautiful,  as  well  as 
comfortable  and  healthful?  Have  both  boys  and  girls 
trained  their  hands  as  well  as  their  heads  to  work  skil- 
fully, so  that  they  have  not  only  learned  the  dignity  of 
labor,  but  have  established  high  standards  of  excellence 
for  all  that  their  hands  find  to  do?  Are  they  grounded 
in  the  laws  underlying  physical  health,  and  do  they  prize 
the  purity  and  health  of  their  bodies  above  rubies  and 
diamonds?  Is  their  education  not  only  sufficient  in 
amount,  but  also  of  the  right  kind  to  prepare  them  for 
the  real  experiences  that  await  them  in  the  estate  of  man- 
hood and  womanhood  on  which  they  soon  will  enter? 


THE   OLD    CURRICULUM  45 

In  short,  are  these  rural  boys  and  girls  equipped  with  an 
education  that  will  give  them  a  fair  chance  for  success- 
ful living  under  the  stress  of  twentieth-century  condi- 
tions ? 

All  these  questions  must  in  some  way  be  affirmatively 
answered  by  the  rural  schools ;  for  our  farm  children 
Vital  subjects  lack-  must  be  supplied  with  these  f  unda- 
ing  in  rural  school  mental  aspects  of  education.  But 
such  questions  can  not  be  so  answered  by  the  old  type 
of  rural  school  with  its  meager  and  narrow  course  of 
study.  Most  of  these  things  can  not  be  learned  in  our 
rural  schools,  for  they  are  not  taught  there.  These  lines 
of  study  have  been  excluded  from  the  rural  schools 
partly  because  the  one-room  school  can  not  teach  so 
many  things  at  once ;  partly  because  the  place  which 
some  of  these  studies  should  take  is  occupied  by  sub- 
jects that  might  well  give  way  for  more  useful  ones; 
and  partly  because  the  need  for  them  has  not  been  fully 
realized. 

How  many  rural  schools  still  teach  essentially  what 
the  parents  of  the  present  generation  studied  in  theii 
Old  standards  rural   school-days!     Who   of  us  can 

still  prevail  forget  those  early  school  experiences ! 

First  we  began  on  our  "letters,"  our  spelling  and  num- 
bers. We  soon  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  reading 
and  arithmetic,  to  which  later  geography,  grammar, 
physiology  and  a  small  text  in  history  were  added.  But 
the  narrow  and  futile  emptiness  of  the  grind !  We  went 
over  the  First  Reader,  and  then  over  it  again,  until  we 
knew  it  by  heart. — "Do  we  go  up  ?  We  do  go  up.  Will 
he  go  up  ?  He  will  go  up."  These  and  such  like  striking 
tales  were  our  unvarying  mental  diet  day  after  day  for  a 
whole  year  of  reading.    Then  we  attacked  the  Second 


46  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS      ^. 

Reader  after  the  same  fashion,  and  proceeded  to  weaf 
it  out,  both  literally  and  figuratively,  as  we  had  done 
with  its  predecessor.  So  we  advanced  to  the  wonderful 
Third  Reader  and,  if  we  continued  in  school  beyond  this 
grade,  to  the  fourth,  or  finally,  even  to  the  fifth  of  the 
series.  We  read  them  all  through  from  beginning  to  end. 
We  reviewed  them.  Then  we  read  them  by  selections 
made  by  the  class ;  finally,  by  selections  made  by  the 
teacher.  Thus  for  eight  mortal  years  our  thought  and 
imagination  were  confined  within  the  limits  of  a  few  piti- 
ful little  collections  of  stories  which  we  read  threadbare, 
and  finally  exhausted,  while  all  this  time  a  great  store- 
house full  of  beautiful  things  to  read  was  waiting  ready 
at  hand.  If  only  some  one  had  unlocked  the  door  for  us, 
who  can  tell  how  much  richer  and  more  fruitful  our  lives 
might  have  been !  Why  were  we  not  allowed  to  explore 
these  rich  literary  fields,  instead  of  being  compelled  thus 
to  mark  time  at  their  entrance? 

With  like  results  we  spent  golden  hours  in  grinding 
out  the  senseless  tangles  of  impossible  mathematical  prob- 
Lack  of  practical  lems  never  to  be  met  outside  the  cov- 
value  of  studies  ers  of  our  dog-eared  arithmetics,  while 
at  the  same  time  we  would  have  been  unable  to  solve 
the  simplest  problems  of  home  or  shop  or  farm.  How 
we  puzzled  our  small  heads  over  the  mysteries  of  partial 
payments,  especially  arranged  for  the  torment  of  the 
small  boy;  over  all  sorts  of  discounts  never  used  in. 
business  ;  over  profit  and  loss  under  conditions  that  would 
astonish  merchant  or  banker ;  over  compound  proportion 
of  truly  appalling  proportions ;  over  the  reduction  of  all 
but  irreducible  fractions ;  or  over  problems  of  imaginary 
hounds  chasing  imaginary  hares  for  so  many  leaps  of  so 
many  improbable  lengths  for  such  and  such  a  distance. 


THE    OLD    CURRICULUM  4> 

and  so  on  ad  infinitum,  until  we  were  lost  in  the  maze. 
But  did  it  not,  after  all,  train  our  powers  of  thought? 
Perhaps  in  some  degree  it  did,  but  think  of  the  oppor- 
tunity we  lost  of  learning  how  to  solve  the  real  problems 
growing  out  of  our  actual  life  and  work  on  the  farm! 
And,  besides,  these  would  not  only  have  given  us  equally 
good  mental  training,  but  would  at  the  same  time  have 
attracted  interest  to  our  study  of  arithmetic,  and  shown 
us  the  relation  of  our  school  work  to  the  work  outside. 
Education  might  then  have  appealed  more  strongly  to 
us  as  the  road  to  efficiency,  and  more  of  us  might  have 
taken  it. 

And  so  also  with  much  of  the  work  in  grammar.  We 
learned  that  a  sentence  is  "a  thought  expressed  in  words." 
Studies  that  do  not  ^^t  we  really  came  to  believe  that  a 
relate  to  life  sentence  is  a  thing  to  be  analyzed  and 

diagrammed  whenever  and  wherever  met.  That  these 
sentences  from  the  pages  of  the  grammar  belonged  to 
the  same  world  with  the  simple  speech  we  were  daily 
using,  never  entered  our  heads.  We  puzzled  over  the 
rules  for  indirect  objects,  and  tried  to  understand  the 
fine  shades  of  difference  between  the  object  and  the 
objective  complement.  We  wondered  at  the  distinctions 
causing  one  word  to  be  classified  as  an  adjective  pronoun, 
and  another  as  a  pronominal  adjective ;  and  took  on  faith 
the  statement  that  a  noun  which  expresses  amount,  dis- 
tance, time  or  direction  has  a  right  to  be  treated  as  an 
adverb.  These  things,  all  of  which  may  be  right  and 
true  enough,  are  perhaps  of  value  to  the  advanced  high- 
school  student;  but  they  were  fed  to  helpless  children 
in  the  rural  school  when  they  were  no  more  suited  to  our 
minds  than  beefsteak  to  the  diet  of  a  babe.  There  we 
were,  at  the  age  best  adapted  to  learning  the  use  of  our 


48  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

mother-tongue,  compelled  to  spend  our  time  on  its  logical 
structure.  When  we  might  have  been  storing  our  minds 
with  beautiful  stories  and  poems,  thus  learning  perfect 
speech  by  example  and  imitation,  we  were  studying  the 
barren  rules  of  grammar.  When  we  ought  to  have  been 
busy  with  oral  and  written  speech  used  to  express  the 
real  experiences  and  vital  interests  of  our  immediate 
lives,  we  were  employed  in  the  deadening  process  of  ana- 
lyzing and  diagramming  the  speech  of  other  people.  Un- 
consciously to  our  benighted  minds  we  were  begging  for 
bread,  but  were  given  stones. 

It  was  not  far  different  with  the  remainder  of  the 
studies.  In  the  study  of  physiology  we  were  treated  as 
Useless  versus  use-  embryo  medical  students,  and  made 
ful  knowledge  to  commit  to  memory  the  names  of  all 

the  bones  of  our  bodies,  and  not  a  few  of  the  muscles 
as  well.  We  were  expected  to  be  able  to  trace  the  course 
of  a  particle  of  food  from  the  time  it  was  taken  into  the 
mouth  until  it  had  passed  through  all  the  marvelous  trans-- 
formations  involved  in  digestion,  absorption  and  assimi- 
lation, and  become  muscle,  or  bone,  or  other  tissue.  But 
little  did  we  learn  about  the  kind  of  food  we  should  eat, 
or  the  manner  of  its  eating.  Little  did  we  study  con- 
cerning the  really  important  things  connected  with  the 
health  and  development  of  our  bodies.  We  accepted 
toothache  as  one  of  the  woes  of  childhood,  and  were 
taught  nothing  of  the  care  of  our  teeth.  If  we  had  bad 
colds,  these  were  but  a  part  of  the  inconvenience  of  the 
winter  season,  and  we  did  not  discover  that  they  are  only 
the  result  of  unhygienic  living.  Contagious  diseases  were 
to  be  shunned  and  dreaded,  but  we  did  not  know  that 
they  could  be  prevented.  We  ought  to  have  been  taught 
how  to  develop  strong,  healthy  and  beautiful  bodies,  but 


THE   OLD    CURRICULUM  49 

were  instructed  in  meaningless  facts  beyond  our  compre- 
hension and  unrelated  to  our  physical  needs. 

Hour  after  hour  in  the  geography  class  we  droned 
the  names  of  unimportant  capes,  bays,  straits,  gulfs  and 
Time  wasted  upon  peninsulas,  which,  though  we  may 
senseless  drill  since  have  read  and  traveled  much,  we 

have  yet  to  meet  outside  the  old  geography.  We  de- 
veloped great  skill  in  "bounding"  all  the  countries  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  we  actually  knew  very  little  of 
people  or  products  outside  the  boundaries  of  our  own 
township.  We  could  glibly  tell  the  names  of  the  rivers, 
large  and  small,  in  many  states,  but  had  no  notion  whence 
the  little  creek  that  flowed  past  our  playground  came 
or  whither  it  went.  History  meant  to  us  chiefly  a  suc- 
cession of  dates  to  be  "committed,"  of  wars  to  be  traced, 
and  of  kings  and  presidents  to  be  learned  in  chronolog- 
ical order.  Great  would  have  been  our  surprise  had  it 
dawned  on  us  that  there  were  real  people  like  ourselves 
living  and  working  at  the  times  referred  to  by  our  dates, 
our  wars,  our  kings  and  presidents. 

But  we  will  not  further  multiply  illustrations.  Indeed 
this  account  of  the  dreary  waste  of  the  precious  oppor- 
Curriculum  still  tunities  of  childhood  in  the  old  dis- 
meager  and  narrow  trict  school  would  have  no  place  at  all 
in  our  present  discussion  except  for  the  fact  that  the  old 
conditions  come  so  near  representing  the  conditions  that 
still  exist  in  many  of  our  rural  schools.  For  the  cur- 
riculum that  has  just  been  described  is  that  of  not  a  small 
proportion  of  the  district  schools  of  to-day,  and  the 
methods  employed  in  teaching  the  subjects  are  not  so 
diflferent  in  some  of  them  as  they  might  be.  But  the 
change  has  begun.  It  is  well  under  way  in  many  places, 
and  not  a  few  of  the  most  progressive  rural  schools  have 


$o  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

a  range  of  studies  affording  an  excellent  education  for 
the  rural  child. 

In  planning  the  curriculum  for  the  present-day  rural 
school,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  at  least  two  great 
factors  are  calling  for  its  enlargement  and  enrichment. 
First,  most  of  the  industrial  lines  of  work  formerly  car- 
ried on  in  the  home,  and  affording  an  excellent  course 
in  the  practical  phases  of  manual  training  and  domestic 
science,  have  dropped  out  of  the  modern  home,  and  must 
be  given  in  the  school  if  the  child  is  not  to  be  deprived  of 
them.  Second,  under  our  newer  ideal  of  education,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  we  are  demanding  a  more  practical 
training,  with  the  aim  of  affording  our  children  more 
immediate  and  concrete  assistance  in  the  every-day  af- 
fairs of  their  lives ;  and  particularly  must  the  education 
given  in  the  rural  schools  relate  itself  closely  to  the  life 
and  work  of  the  farm. 

The  old-time  home  was  the  center  of  a  varied  group 
of  industries  in  which  each  member  of  the  family,  from 
Industrial  training  the  youngest  child  to  the  grandparent, 
in  old-time  home  had  a  part.  The  flax  for  the  linen  of 
the  household,  and  the  wool  for  the  clothing  were  raised 
on  the  farm,  and  every  phase  of  their  manufacture  was 
carried  out  in  the  home.  The  children  had  a  part  in  the 
clipping,  carding,  spinning  and  weaving  of  the  wool.  Did 
the  son  need  a  suit  of  clothes,  the  mother,  without  the 
help  of  a  fashion-plate,  shrunk  and  pressed  the  home- 
made cloth,  cut  it  after  a  generous  pattern  treasured  as 
an  heirloom  in  the  family,  and  made  it  by  hand  into  the 
garments  required.  The  style  may  not  have  been  equal 
to  that  of  the  present  day,  but  the  suit  represented  a 
home  industry  from  the  time  the  wool  was  growing  on 
the  backs  of  the  sheep  in  the  field  until  it  covered  the  back 


THE   OLD    CURRICULUM  51 

of  the  lamb  of  the  household.  If  a  dress  was  required 
for  the  baby,  or  a  trousseau  for  a  bride,  the  process  was 
the  same ;  the  farm  supplied  the  materials,  and  the  home 
did  the  work. 

So  it  was  with  what  went  on  the  table.  The  fall  "butch- 
ering day"  was  a  great  event.  There  was  the  bustle  of 
Training  in  do-  preparation,  the  heating  of  the  cal- 
mestic  science  drons  of   water,   the   coming  of  the 

neighbors  to  help,  and  the  little  thrills  of  sorrow 
and  anticipation  with  which  the  children  paid  a  last 
visit  to  the  pens  of  the  victims.  There  was  the 
he-o-he  of  the  men  as  they  soused  the  porkers  in 
the  barrel  of  hot  water,  the  frantic  haste  of  the 
scraping,  and  the  smooth  and  shiny  white  skins  of  the 
pigs  as  they  hung,  nose  down,  from  the  chains  out  by  the 
shed.  And  then  the  cutting  up  and  the  salting  down 
in  barrels,  the  making  of  wurst  and  headcheese,  and  the 
smoking  of  the  hams  out  in  the  old  smoke-house ! 

There  was  also  the  dairy-house,  through  which  the 
trough  ran  from  the  spring,  and  the  rows  of  shining  pans 

_  .         , .        for  the  milk.    The  cream  was  put  into 

Lessons  in  cookmg     ,  ,  ,     f       ,  ., 

the  great  stone  churn,  and  the  chil- 
dren took  turns  in  working  the  plunger  until  the  cream 
"broke,"  and  the  butter  came.  The  pantry  was  laden 
with  the  great  loaves  of  flaky  home-made  bread,  rows 
of  pies,  jars  of  cookies  fresh  from  the  oven,  plates  of 
doughnuts  and  golden  cakes.  Rows  on  rows  of  dried 
apples  and  peaches  hung  in  festoons  from  the  rafters  with 
brave  disregard  of  the  whole  tribe  of  bacteria  and  mi- 
crobes. Great  bags  of  dried  sweet  corn  were  suspended 
from  the  beams  of  the  ceiling.  And  shelves  full  of  pre- 
served plums,  apples  and  berries  were  stored  against  the 
winter  season. 


52  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Nor  must  we  forget  the  workshop  with  its  motley  array 
of  tools,  and  its  treasure  boxes  full  of  odds  and  ends 
The  boy  and  the  suitable  for  mending  anything  from 
home  workshop  the  fiddle  to  the  hayrack.  In  this 
shop  was  made  or  repaired  much  of  the  furniture  for 
the  home,  and  most  of  the  machinery  for  the  farm.  And 
the  rainy  days,  which  were  the  busiest  of  all!  It  was 
then  that  the  well-worn  shoes  were  half-soled,  the  har- 
ness oiled  and  patched,  the  rakes  mended,  and  the 
scythes  and  cradles  sharpened. 

In  this  old-time  home  every  one  was  busy  from  morn- 
ing till  night,  week  in  and  week  out,  with  only  the  rare 
holiday  as  a  relief  from  the  steady  toil.  And  in  all  the 
industry,  the  children  had  a  responsible  and  important 
part.  They  early  learned  to  use  their  hands,  and  to  take 
pride  in  their  manual  skill;  they  learned  to  work,  and 
not  to  flinch  before  their  tasks.  They  received  an  in- 
valuable course  in  manual  training  and  domestic  science, 
which  in  some  of  its  aspects  can  never  be  duplicated  in 
the  schools  no  matter  how  good  their  equipment  or  how 
skilful  their  instruction.  For  these  home  industries 
possessed  a  concreteness  hard  to  simulate  in  the  work 
of  the  school.  Here  the  incentives  were  real,  the  interests 
immediate,  and  the  necessities  pressing. 

But  these  days  are  gone.  The  factories  have  come  and 
robbed  the  home  of  its  varied  industries.  It  is  no  one's 
Industrial  changes  fault ;  it  could  not  be  helped.  The  de- 
in  the  modern  mon   of   enterprise   came   among  us, 

and  we  were  obliged  to  change  our 
manner  of  living.  The  mail  carrier  brings  our  mail,  and 
the  telephone  runs  our  errands.  There  is  little  wood  to 
cut,  and  the  grocer  supplies  our  fruit  and  vegetables. 


THE   OLD    CURRICULUM  '53 

The  pigs  are  now  whirled  to  the  city  in  a  train  of  palace 
cars,  passed  through  a  packing-house  and  returned  to 
us  at  astonishing  prices  as  ham  and  bacon.  And  mother 
and  the  family  no  longer  make  the  suits  of  clothes.  Per- 
ish the  thought !  With  the  help  of  a  tape  measure  and 
a  printed  blank  we  may  obtain  the  services  of  the  city 
tailor,  and  you  can  not  tell  from  the  cut  of  our  clothes 
whether  we  belong  to  Prairieville  or  Broadway.  The 
baby's  dress  comes  from  the  catalogue  house,  and  the 
bride's  trousseau  from  the  city  modiste.  Tomatoes  and 
sweet  corn  now  grow  in  tin  cans,  and  apples  are  picked 
from  barrels  instead  of  from  the  orchard.  The  steam 
laundry  is  asking  for  our  washing,  and  the  baker  stands 
ready  to  stock  our  pantry.  Nearly  all  the  old-time  in- 
dustries have  gone  from  the  home  except  cooking  and 
cleaning,  and  with  modern  methods  these  are  very  differ- 
ent from  what  they  were  in  earlier  days. 

All  this  is  a  grave  loss  to  the  education  of  the  child. 
That  there  are  many  compensations  is  true,  and  no  one  is 
longing  for  the  "good  old  days."  Far  from  it;  these 
are  the  best  times  the  world  has  ever  seen  in  which  to 
live  a  happy  and  successful  life,  whether  in  the  town  or 
on  the  farm.  But  this  does  not  change  the  fact  that 
education  is  incomplete  without  careful  training  of  the 
hand  as  well  as  the  head.  For  the  work  that  lies  ahead 
requires  both.  And  the  school  must  undertake  to  sup- 
ply to  the  child's  education  what  has  been  lost  out  of  the 
home.  That  is  what  the  school  is  for — to  make  sure  that 
our  children  do  not  lack  necessary  training  that  the  home 
and  the  community,  without  the  help  of  the  school,  are 
unable  to  give. 

The  school  has  taken  over  many  functions  that  origi- 


54  BETTER  RURAL'   SCHOOLS 

nally  belonged  to  the  home.  In  fact,  among  primitive 
peoples,  the  home  gives  the  child  all  the  education  he 
The  school  must  receives,  for  they  have  no  schools, 
take  over  functions  Schools  first  came  into  being  when  it 
lost  from  home  ^^g    found    that    there    were    many 

things  required  in  the  child's  education  that  the  home 
could  not  give.  In  our  own  colonial  days  the  home  was 
responsible  for  teaching  the  child  the  elements  of  reading 
and  number  before  he  was  sent  to  school.  And  the  old 
records  of  the  New  England  town  meetings  contain  many 
accounts  of  complaints  made  by  the  schoolmaster  because 
neglectful  parents  had  started  their  children  to  school 
"unprepared  in  their  letters  and  numbers."  In  such  cases 
the  child  was  dismissed  from  the  school  until  he  had 
made  up  the  deficiency.  But  in  our  later  day  the  school 
assumes  full  responsibility  for  the  child's  education  from 
the  first,  and  does  not  expect  the  home  to  give  any  in- 
struction. We  have  even  gone  so  far  that  the  kinder- 
garten takes  the  child  when  he  is  too  young  to  instruct 
in  books  and  teaches  him  to  play ! 

And  the  school  must  now  take  over  the  training  of  the 
hand,  which  the  home,  with  its  widely-varied  industries 
The  school  must  was  formerly  able  to  supply.  This 
train  the  hand  is  the  only  way,  if  this  vital  part  of 

education  is  not  to  be  lost;  for  the  home  can  no  longer 
accomplish  it.  If  we  are  not  to  become  a  nation  of  mere 
readers  of  books  in  our  education,  the  schools  must  pro- 
vide for  industrial  education  fitting  our  youth  for  the 
occupations  awaiting  them.  The  increased  amount  of 
schooling  we  are  now  giving  our  children  has  even  led 
them  farther  and  farther  away  from  work  with  their 
hands;  for  the  child  who  formerly  worked  in  the  home 
or  on  the  farm  for  nine  months  of  the  year  and  spent 


THE   OLD    CURRICULUM  55 

three  months  in  the  school  studying  books,  now  spends 
from  six  to  nine  months  in  the  study  of  books,  and  a  cor- 
respondingly less  time  in  work.  And  one  who  has  de- 
voted the  greater  part  of  his  youth  to  books,  and  never 
learned  to  use  his  hands,  will  hardly  seek  an  industry 
when  he  chooses  his  vocation.  Nor  is  the  remedy  to 
have  him  spend  less  time  in  school  and  more  in  labor. 
That  will  not  solve  the  problem.  What  is  needed  is  for 
the  school  to  provide  such  work  as  will  train  both  hand 
and  head,  and  lead  to  an  appreciation  of  the  value  and 
dignity  of  industrial  labor. 

This  point  of  view,  together  with  the  demand  that  the 
school  shall  fit  more  directly  for  the  life  and  work  of  the 

farm,  calls  for  the  addition  of  certain 
Manual  training,        ,  ,  ,  ,      ,      , 

agriculture  and  do-    branches   to   the   rural-school   curric- 

mestic  science  to  ulum.  Manual  training  and  domes- 
tic science  are  needed  to  make  up  for 
their  partial  loss  from  the  home,  and  also  to  give  a  more 
scientific  and  complete  preparation  in  these  subjects  than 
any  home  is  able  to  afford.  Agriculture  must  also  be 
taught,  because  that  is  to  be  the  occupation  of  most  of  the 
pupils  of  the  rural  school,  and  because  the  school  can 
greatly  increase  their  efficiency  as  workers  on  the  farm. 
The  new  movement  throughout  the  country  toward  scien- 
tific agriculture  makes  it  all  the  more  imperative  that  the 
rural  school  should  enter  on  this  line  of  instruction.  The 
introduction  of  agriculture  into  the  rural  schools  has  al- 
ready doubled  or  trebled  their  efficiency  in  many  places. 
It  has  resulted  in  increased  attendance,  in  better  work  in 
all  subjects,  and  in  a  spirit  of  loyalty  toward  the  school 
on  the  part  of  the  community.  Through  the  agency  of 
instruction  in  agriculture,  the  rural  schools  have  been 
instrumental  in  adding  millions  of  dollars  to  the  wealth 


56  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

of  the  country  by  increasing  the  yield  of  corn,  oats  and 
other  crops.  There  is  almost  no  limit  to  the  service  that 
can  be  rendered  by  the  rural  schools  in  educating  the 
boys  and  girls  to  modern  methods  of  farming. 

If  the  children  of  the  farms  are  to  have  opportunities 
for  education  equal  to  those  of  the  town  and  city  child, 
Music  and  art  to  the  rural  schools  can  not  stop  with 
have  a  place  the  subjects  that  are  related  to  the 

work-life  alone,  though  these  may  be  the  foundation 
of  all  the  others.  Personal  attainments  that  have  for 
their  object  the  giving  of  greater  satisfaction  and  happi- 
ness to  their  possessor  belong  to  the  rural  child  as  much 
as  to  the  child  of  the  town.  The  rural  school  should 
make  music  and  art  a  regular  part  of  the  course  of  study 
as  is  done  in  the  town  and  city  schools.  Indeed  there 
is  much  more  need  for  these  subjects  in  the  country  than 
in  the  city  school,  for  the  •  reason  that  the  city  child 
constantly  has  opportunities  to  hear  music  and  to  see 
pictures  outside  the  school  which  the  rural  child  does 
not  have.  And  it  is  precisely  these  cultural  phases  of  edu- 
cation that  must  not  be  left  out  of  the  rural  school  as 
the  curriculum  is  being  reconstructed  in  the  direction 
of  making  it  more  practical,  effective  and  inter- 
esting. For,  while  making  a  living  is  the  first  great  neces- 
sity in  the  lives  of  most  of  us,  life  is,  after  all,  more  than 
making  a  living;  and  the  finer  joys,  and  the  satisfaction 
that  comes  from  an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  round 
about  us,  are  among  the  most  desirable  attainments. 

The  changes  needed  in  the  rural  school  curriculum, 
however,  are  not  all  to  be  accomplished  by  the  addition  of 
Standpoint  and  certain  studies.  The  need  is  fully  as 
attitude  great  that  the  standpoint  and  attitude 

toward  many  of  the  branches  already  in  the  curriculum 


THE   OLD   CURRICULUM  57 

shall  be  changed.  Almost  every  subject  needs  to  be  vital- 
ized by  bringing  it  closer  to  the  interest  and  needs  of  the 
pupils. 

Instead  of  the  dreary  set  of  school  readers  read  over 
and  over,  we  must  open  up  to  the  child  the  great  store- 

_,  .    ^      ,        house  of  inspiring  books,  and  train 

Changes  in  teach-      ...  ,        ,  .„ 

ing,  reading,  arith-    his  mterests  so  that  he  will  care  to 

metic  and  other  j-ead  them.  This  means  that  the  rural 
subjects  ,      ,  . , 

school  must  provide  a  generous  library 

especially  selected  to  fit  the  development  and  interests  of 
children.  It  must  have  historical  novels,  and  well-writ- 
ten histories.  It  must  have  simple  books  on  science,  in- 
troducing the  child  to  the  rich  field  of  modern  scientific 
discoveries  and  inventions,  and  especially  such  as  relate 
most  closely  to  the  life  of  the  farm. 

The  teaching  of  arithmetic  must  omit  the  tangled  logical 
problems  dealing  with  impractical  conditions,  and  em- 
phasize the  arithmetic  of  the  farm,  the  shop  and  the 
home.  Let  the  arithmetic  taught  be  correlated  directly 
with  the  lessons  in  agriculture,  manual  training,  domestic 
science,  the  practical  measurements  employed  on  the 
farm,  and  the  accounts  of  the  household,  a:nd  it  will  prove 
both  practical  and  interesting  in  a  degree  hitherto  un- 
known. 

Similarly,  the  physiology  will  need  to  be  related  more 
directly  to  questions  of  the  health  and  development  of 
the  children.  Not  so  much  a  course  in  anatomy  and 
technical  physiology  is  needed  as  training  in  hygiene. 
Geography  can  be  made  vastly  more  valuable  and  inter- 
esting by  eliminating  the  trivial  and  unnecessary,  and 
putting  in  its  place  matter  dealing  with  peoples,  places, 
products  and  industries  closely  related  to  the  life  of  our 
own  people  and  times.     And  so  on  with  every  line  of 


S»  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

study.  Let  the  aim  no  longer  be  to  train  a  more  or  less 
mythical  set  of  powers  of  the  child  by  a  senseless  grind 
over  meaningless  exercises  supposed  to  develop  mental 
strength.  But  let  everything  that  we  teach  start  with 
some  present  interest  or  activity  of  the  child,  and  lead 
as  directly  as  possible  to  efficiency  in  meeting  the  actual 
problems  that  lie  ahead. 

If  it  be  objected  that  there  is  not  time  or  place  in  the 
rural  school  for  all  these  things  that  are  proposed,  it  may 
How  time  is  to  be  ^^  answered  that  if  the  unnecessary 
secured  for  new  from  the  old  curriculum  is  left  out, 
subjects  ^^^  ^j^g  remainder  correlated  with  the 

newer  subjects  as  it  can  and  should  be,  the  course  of 
study  will  be  even  less  crowded  than  it  is  at  the  present 
time.  It  will  also  be  vastly  more  interesting  to  those 
who  study  and  teach  it,  and  of  infinitely  greater  value 
to  all  our  people.  It  will  be  the  purpose  in  the  following 
chapter  to  outline  and  discuss  such  a  reorganized  curric- 
ulum for  the  rural  school  as  we  have  proposed. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  What  are  the  educational  standards  in  your  schooi 
community  ?  Do  the  patrons  desire  a  broad  education  for 
their  children,  or  do  they  think  the  school  which  they 
themselves  attended  is  good  enough  for  their  children? 

2.  The  first  thing  necessary  in  carrying  out  any  line 
of  progress  or  reform  is  to  make  people  want  the  im- 
provements you  seek  to  promote.  How  can  you  make  the 
constituency  of  the  rural  school  want  a  broader  and 
richer  curriculum? 

3.  How  far  does  the  picture  drawn  of  the  studies  as 
taught  in  the  old-time  school  apply  to  the  rural  school  of 


THE   OLD   CURRICULUM  59 

your  locality?     (For  example,  in  arithmetic,  geography, 
grammar,  physiology.) 

4.  Compare  the  work  and  the  play  of  an  average 
country  boy  of  to-day  with  the  work  and  play  of  his 
father  or  his  grandfather  at  the  same  age ;  make  a  similar 
comparison  of  the  country  girl's  life  with  that  of  her 
mother  or  grandmother. 

5.  Trace  the  actual  number  of  vocations  outside  the 
home  now  required  to  set  the  table  for  a  family  meal  and 
compare  with  conditions  a  generation  ago. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  farm  boys  you  can  discover 
who  have  gone  through  a  town  high  school.  How  many 
of  them  returned  to  farming  for  a  permanent  vocation  ? 

7.  How  many  books  suitable  for  the  reading  of  chil- 
dren are  contained  in  your  school  library  ?  Can  you  form 
an  accurate  estimate  of  how  many  are  available  in  each 
home  represented  in  your  school?  Make  a  list  of  all  the 
books  each  of  your  pupils  can  remember  having  read. 
What  do  the  results  suggest? 

8.  Could  your  school  district  afford  to  spend  several 
hundred  dollars  in  a  school  library  and  regularly  appro- 
priate fifty  dollars  a  year  for  additions?  How  can  the 
patrons  be  made  to  feel  the  need  of  such  a  step  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  REORGANIZED  CURRICULUM 

What,  then,  shall  be  taught  in  the  rural  schools  ?  Shall 
we  desert  the  time-honored  fundamentals  of  reading, 
writing  and  arithmetic  ?  Shall  we  teach  the  child  how  to 
test  seed-corn,  judge  stock,  garden  and  make  boxes, 
but  leave  him  helpless  in  the  matter  of  spelling,  geog- 
raphy and  history?  Is  there  danger  that  we  shall  be- 
come so  enamored  of  the  new  that  we  shall  forget  the 
old? 

There  are  many  earnest  people  who  fear  these  very 
things.  But  their  fears  are  founded  on  an  imperfect  un- 
Valuable  in  old  derstanding  of  the  spirit  of  the  new 
conserved  education.  No  one  who  is  intelligently 

seeking  to  reorganize  the  rural-school  curriculum  is  will- 
ing to  let  go  the  fundamentals  of  education,  the  tools 
of  knowledge  which  all  must  have.  On  the  contrary, 
one  of  the  great  aims  of  the  new  ideal  of  the  curriculum 
is  to  vitalize  and  make  more  perfect  and  usable  the 
"three  R's" — to  fortify  the  work  of  reading  that  it  may 
mean  much  more  to  the  learner  than  it  has  meant  under 
the  older  plan;  to  make  the  subject  of  arithmetic  a  thou- 
sand times  more  practical  and  useful  than  it  has  ever  been 
before,  and  to  increase  the  efficiency  in  its  operations 
beyond  what  has  obtained  in  the  old  type  of  schools.  It 
is  the  purpose  to  put  such  interest  into  the  matter  of  writ- 

60 


THE   REORGANIZED   CURRICULUM        6l 

ing  that  the  child  will  desire  to  write  well  because  he  has 
something  that  he  wants  to  write;  and  in  the  subject 
of  geography  to  make  its  dry  bones  live  because  clothed 
with  subject-matter  of  vital  interest  and  importance. 

The  method  by  which  this  is  to  be  done  is  by  first  of 
all  changing  the  method  of  organization  within  the  curric- 
Point  of  emphasis  ulum— by  changing  the  center  of 
to  be  changed  emphasis,  in  order  that  the  matter  to 

be  learned  may  be  approached  more  easily  and  naturally, 
and  be  related  more  closely  to  the  life  of  the  learner. 
Every  one,  old  and  young,  knows  from  his  experience, 
that  we  are  more  interested  in  the  things  that  lie  closest 
to  our  lives, — the  activities  in  our  home,  the  occupation 
that  claims  our  attention,  the  vocation  that  we  mean  ul- 
timately to  enter  on,  than  we  are  in  mere  abstractions. 
For  example,  with  what  zeal  one  will  study  even  a  rail- 
way time-table  if  he  is  about  to  make  a  journey!  And, 
those  who  are  planning  a  trip  to  Europe  enter  on  a  mas- 
tery of  its  geography  and  history  far  more  thorough  than 
they  would  ever  attain  if  studying  them  as  an  assigned 
task.  The  boy  who  needs  to  learn  the  new  rules  of  the 
ball  game  does  not  require  some  one  to  compel  him  to 
get  his  lesson ;  the  necessity  of  his  interest  compels  him. 

The  great  thing,  therefore,  is  to  connect  the  work  of 
the  school  so  closely  with  the  interests  and  activities  of 
School  interests  ^^^  home,  its  work  and  its  play,  that 
related  to  home  in-  the  incentives  to  study  may  be  imme- 
diate and  real.  It  is  this  imme- 
diate vital  interest  that  saves  the  boy  from  becoming 
dull  and  disinterested,  and  the  girl  from  becoming 
listless  and  inefficient  in  her  work.  Many  a  child 
has  quit  school  before  completing  the  course  of  study, 
not  because  he  was  compelled  to   stay  out  to  work. 


62  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

but  because  interest  failed,  owing  to  the  lack  of 
connection  between  his  school  work  and  his  outside  inter- 
ests and  activities.  Many  others  have  continued  in 
school  until  they  have  obtained  a  smattering  of  what  it 
had  to  teach,  and  later  found  little  immediate  use  for 
what  they  had  learned. 

The  aim,  therefore,  in  reorganizing  the  rural  school  cur- 
riculum is  to  get  a  foundation  of  actual  interest  on  which 
to  build  a  mastery  of  the  fundamentals  of  knowledge; 
and  then  to  go  on  and  add  certain  vital  matter  to  the 
training  of  rural  children  which  they  have  heretofore 
lacked.  The  purpose  is  to  find  in  the  daily  lives  and  ac- 
tivities of  the  pupils  the  incentives  that  will  lead  to  a 
better  and  more  complete  learning  of  the  elementary 
branches,  and  in  addition,  so  attach  the  pupils  to  the 
school  and  its  work  that  they  will  desire  to  remain  for  a 
much  more  extended  and  helpful  education  than  they 
are  now  receiving. 

This  fundamental  basis  of  interest  is  easily  found  in 
the  lives  of  the  rural  school  pupils.  For  they  all  come 
Rural  life  homo-  from  homes  founded  on  the  same 
geneous  type    of    occupation,    and    interested 

in  the  same  industrial  problems.  In  the  town  or  city 
school,  the  pupils  represent  ten  or  twenty  different  oc- 
cupations ;  but  in  the  rural  school  they  represent  only  the 
one  industry  of  agriculture  with  its  supplemental  occu- 
pations. The  homes  are  agricultural  homes,  the  interests 
on  the  vocational  side  are  agricultural  interests.  There- 
fore what  will  appeal  to  one  group  of  pupils  as  an  in- 
centive to  effort  will  appeal  to  all  the  others  of  the  same 
community.  Knowledge  or  skill  adapted  to  use  on  one 
farm,  will  be  adapted  to  use  on  the  other  farms  of  the 
locality. 


THE   REORGANIZED   CURRICULUM        63 

These  important  facts  make  it  possible  to  organize  the 
carriculum  of  the  rural  school  on  a  much  more  simple 
Core  of  new  ^^^  practical  basis  than  that  of  a  town 

curriculum  school.     Nature  study  as  related  to 

the  open  country,  agriculture  adapted  to  the  local  needs 
and  conditions,  manual  training  of  the  type  most  related 
to  the  needs  of  the  farm,  home  economics  suited  to  the 
conditions  of  the  farm  home, — these  are  the  basis  of  the 
rural-school  curriculum,  the  core  around  which  the  other 
subjects  are  to  be  grouped.  In  these  will  be  found  the 
sources  of  the  interests  and  incentives  that  will  lead  to  the 
mastery  of  the  branches  constituting  the  tools  of  edu- 
cation. It  is  not,  therefore,  that  these  latter  branches 
are  to  be  omitted  or  neglected ;  they  are  only  to  be  set  in 
their  proper  relation  to  the  interests  and  experience  of 
the  pupil.  Only  those  parts  of  the  old  subjects  that 
should  plainly  give  way  to  more  useful  material  are  to 
be  supplanted  by  the  new.  Not  annihilation,  but  reor- 
ganisation is  what  is  proposed. 

What  shall  be  the  plan  of  the  reorganized  rural-school 
curriculum?  How  shall  it  differ  from  the  old  curric- 
Plan  of  the  new  ulum  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  the 
curriculum  curriculum  of  town  and  city  schools 

on  the  other?  For  it  is  clear  that  the  old  curriculum 
was  faulty  both  in  the  meagerness  of  the  material  it  of- 
fered, and  the  emphasis  it  put  on  the  technical  and  theo- 
retical as  against  the  practical  and  concrete.  And  it  is 
also  evident  that  the  curriculum  best  adapted  for  the  city 
school  is  not  the  one  for  the  rural  school,  where  the  inter- 
ests and  activities  outside  the  school  are  entirely  dif- 
ferent. 

While  the  interests  related  to  the  life  and  work  of  the 
farm   or  agriculture — nature   study,   stock   raising,   the 


64  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

practical  handicrafts  and  domestic  science — will  consti- 
tute the  basis  of  the  curriculum,  this  does  not  mean  that 

_,       .       ,      ,  the  work  of  the  school  is  to  be  lim- 

V ocational  sub- 
jects alone  not  ited  to  these  subjects.     It  rather  sig- 

enough  ^ifies  that  they   shall   constitute   the 

point  of  departure,  the  foundation  of  incentive,  for  the 

other  studies.     The  country  boy  and  girl  can  no  more 

stop  with  these  vocational  subjects  alone  than  the  youth 

preparing  for  a  trade  can  afford  to  study  solely  the 

mechanics  of  that  trade  without  any  knowledge  of  other 

things.    It    is  to  be  remembered  that  the  workers  on  the 

farm  are  men  and  women  before  they  are  farmers,  and 

as  such  have  a  right  to  the  help  and  inspiration  that  grow 

from  a  knowledge  of  the  world's  history,  its  literature, 

music  and  art;  they  demand  and  have  a  right  to  the 

broadening  influence  that  comes  from  contact  with  the 

field  of  science  and  invention.      In  short,  the  men  and 

women  of  the  farm  need  as  good  an  education  as  any 

other  class  of  American  citizens. 

What,  then,  is  to  be  the  organization  of  the  new  curric- 
ulum? On  what  shall  the  child  begin  when  he  first 
enters  school?  How  shall  he  proceed,  and  what  shall 
he  study  from  grade  to  grade? 

Let  us  first  answer  in  general,  that  under  the  reorgan- 
ized curriculum  the  pupil  will  primarily  study  things, 

Difference  between  ^"^  ^^^^  secondarily  will  he  study 
old  and  new  cur-  books;  and  that  he  will  actually  do 
"*^"  ^  his  lessons,  in  field  or  shop  or  home 

or  garden,  as  well  as  sit  at  a  desk  and  learn  them.  The 
new  curriculum  will  change  the  point  of  emphasis  from 
cramming  the  head  with  information,  to  applying  the 
knowledge  learned  to  one's  actual  life  and  work.  For 
the  only  true  way  to  learn  a  thing  is  to  live  it. 


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THE   REORGANIZED    CURRICULUM        65 

And  this  point  of  view  will  first  of  all  influence  the 
child's  starting-point  as  he  begins  school.  The  old  plan 
was  to  take  him  fresh  from  play  and  the  activities  of  the 
home  and  the  field,  and  placing  him  in  a  stiff  seat  with 
the  admonition  to  "be  quiet,"  set  him  at  work  learning 
symbols.  His  muscles,  aching  for  the  activity  to  which 
they  are  accustomed,  cry  out  against  the  torture  of  their 
imprisonment.  His  mind,  used  to  the  stimulus  of  real 
problems  and  living  interests,  protests  against  the  empti- 
ness of  the  task  which  it  is  given.  But  regardless  of  the 
danger  to  his  physical  development  from  the  incarcer- 
ation in  his  prison-seat,  and  in  spite  of  the  equal  danger 
to  the  development  of  his  mental  powers,  he  is  required 
to  submit;  for  he  must  "learn  to  read,"  and  must  study 
his  "numbers"  and  his  "language." 

The  result  of  this  irrational  method  of  introducing 
a  child  to  his  education  is  known  to  every  observant 
Stupefying  effects  teacher.  At  first  the  average  child  is 
of  old  method  alert     and     interested.       The     sheer 

novelty  of  the  change  from  home  to  school  stimulates  him. 
His  mind  must  be  active  on  something,  so  it  busies  itself 
on  the  lessons  prescribed,  and  he  learns  to  read  and  num- 
ber. This  stage  lasts  a  year  or  two  and  then  comes  the 
change.  The  novelty  has  worn  off,  school  is  no  longer  new, 
the  teacher  has  ceased  to  be  infallible,  and  the  books  have 
become  a  bore.  The  child  loses  interest  in  his  work.  He 
ceases  to  be  bright  and  alert.  If  he  is  just  an  average 
child  he  becomes  dull  and  fails  to  master  his  lessons ; 
he  does  not  like  school  and  stays  out  on  the  smallest 
excuse.  After  a  year  or  two  more  of  desultory  attend- 
ance he  drops  out  of  school  for  good,  having  reached 
about  the  fourth  grade.  If  he  is  an  exceptional  child — 
one  in  ten  or  twenty — he  survives  the  process  we  have 


(^  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

thrust  on  him  and  goes  on  until  he  completes  the  course. 
But  the  average  child,  and  the  child  who  is  below  the 
average,  loses  out;  they  become  educational  castaways. 
The  tragedy  of  it !  Dante  says  a  tragedy  is  "a  bad  ending 
of  a  good  beginning."  And  how  many  bad  endings  of 
good  beginnings  are  we  responsible  for  with  our  un- 
natural and  senseless  methods ! 

Under  the  reorganized  curriculum  the  child  will  enter 
on  the  field  of  learning  by  a  different  pathway.  Instead 
The  new  curricu-  ^f  centering  all  his  energies  on  the 
lum  connects  with  symbols  of  reading  and  number  as  if 
home  activities  ^j^^^  ^^^.^  ^j^^  ..^j^j^f  ^^^  ^f  ^^^y  y^^ 

will  simply  continue  the  lines  of  activity  already  begun 
in  the  farm  home.  He  will  continue  to  observe  nature, 
but  with  this  difference;  his  observation  will  now  be 
under  the  guidance  and  direction  of  a  teacher  and  will 
therefore  be  nature  study.  He  will  continue  his  interest 
in  the  crops  and  animals  of  the  farm ;  but  because  he  is 
now  under  skilled  instruction,  he  will  be  studying  agri- 
culture. He  will  continue  to  use  his  hands  in  the  con- 
struction of  objects  or  their  pictures,  but  because  he  is 
now  being  taught  how  to  make  them,  he  is  learning 
manual  training  or  drawing.  The  girl  will  go  on  with 
her  sewing,  her  cooking  and  her  housekeeping,  but  she 
will  be  taught  such  methods  and  developed  in  such  stand- 
ards of  doing  these  things  that  she  will  be  studying  do- 
mestic science.  Not  that  the  names  agriculture,  manual 
training  and  domestic  science,  will  at  the  beginning  be 
needed  to  describe  what  the  children  are  taught,  but  the 
foundations  of  these  very  important  subjects  are  being 
laid. 

And  the  reading  and  the  number  and  the  language? 
We  now  come  to  them — the  child  now  comes  to  them.    In- 


THE   REORGANIZED    CURRICULUM        67 

deed  he  may  start  these  things  from  the  first,  but  they 
supplement  the  real  and  concrete  activities  instead  of 
Reading,  language  monopohzing  all  the  child's  time  and 
and  number  follow  effort.  Nor  will  he  learn  to  read  any 
less  rapidly  than  under  the  old  system,  for  now  he  has  an 
interest  and  an  enthusiasm  in  his  work  that  extends  to 
all  his  studies.  Besides,  he  now  feels  that  he  needs  to 
know  how  to  read,  and  write,  and  number.  For  there 
are  the  interesting  things  to  be  read  about — the  stories 
of  the  birds  and  the  flowers  and  the  people  concerning 
whom  he  is  learning ;  there  are  interesting  things  to  write 
and  tell  about — things  that  he  is  doing  in  his  nature 
study,  his  gardening,  and  all  the  rest.  Here  he  naturally 
comes  to  enter  on  his  language  work;  and  there  are  the 
real  necessities  for  numbering  things — counting  and  add- 
ing and  multiplying  in  the  actual  problems  being  met  in 
his  manual  work,  his  concrete  geography,  his  instruction 
in  agriculture  or  the  other  real  studies  of  the  school. 

All  this  is  not  to  say  that  the  child  will  learn  to  read 
without  any  care  being  given  to  reading,  or  that  he  will 

Teaching  of  the  not  need  to  be  taught  arithmetic  or  in- 
fundamentals  vital-  ,    .       ,  -  ,  t 

ized  structed  m  the  use  of  language,     it 

is  entirely  certain  that  he  will  need  the  best  of  teaching 
in  all  these  things,  but  the  point  is,  that  the  teaching  can 
he  better,  and  that  the  child's  interest  in  these  formal 
studies  will  be  stronger  and  more  effective  when  they 
rest  on  a  foundation  of  subjects  that  fit  directly  into  the 
actual  life  and  experience  of  the  pupil.  Not  only  is  this 
truth  in  accord  with  the  principles  of  good  psychology, 
but  it  is  being  tested  and  proved  in  hundreds  of  schools 
which  have  dared  step  out  of  the  well-known  path  of  tra- 
dition into  the  highway  of  greater  freedom  and  common 
sense  in  the  reorganizing  of  their  curricula. 


68  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Further,  much  valuable  time  is  lost  and  interest  de- 
stroyed by  undertaking  to  teach  the  young  child  what 
he  is  not  yet  ready  for,  and  what,  at  the  proper  time,  he 
will  apprehend  easily  and  quickly,  or  even  learn  for  him- 
self. Think  of  all  the  time  devoted  to  teaching  six-year- 
old  children  the  "number  combinations,"  while  the  child's 
brain  is  yet  undeveloped  for  the  association  processes  re- 
quired in  such  work!  Let  the  boy  or  girl  grow  a  little 
older,  and  find  need  for  these  "combinations,"  and  they 
are  learned  as  if  by  magic.  If  the  teaching  of  number 
during  the  first  two  years  in  school  is  made  incidental  to 
other  subjects,  not  neglecting  it,  but  making  it  grow 
naturally  out  of  the  branches  where  it  is  needed,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  mastery  of  arithmetic  will  not  suffer  in 
the  least.  And  such  is  the  case  also  with  formal  language 
instruction,  which  should  be  an  outgrowth  of  the  work 
being  done  in  nature  study,  geography,  industrial  work 
and  the  other  concrete  subjects  of  the  school  course,  and 
not,  at  least  in  its  earlier  stages,  a  formal  study  in  itself 
at  all. 

The  principles  just  stated  for  first  initiating  a  child  into 
the  work  of  the  school  will  hold  throughout  the  course. 
Not  discipline  but  The  immediate  occupational  interests, 
efficiency  the  aim  taken  in  connection  with  the  activities 
later  to  be  entered  on,  should  be  the  controlling  factor. 
Not  arithmetical  tangles  or  grammatical  complexities  for 
the  purpose  of  mental  gymnastics,  but  living  subjects  that 
give  the  knowledge,  develop  the  attitude  and  lead  to  the 
skill  required  by  intelligent  progressive  men  and  women, 
must  dominate  the  curriculum.  For  not  an  intangible 
veneer  of  culture  nor  a  doubtful  amount  of  discipline, 
but  efficiency  in  occupation  is  the  fundamental  aim  of  the 
rural  school.    And  on  this  foundation  of  efficiency  a  bet- 


THE   REORGANIZED    CURRICULUM        69 

ter  culture  and  a  truer  discipline  than  we  have  yet  known 
will  be  built. 

The  most  practical  and  natural  starting-point  for  work 
in  the  rural  school  is  nature  study.  For  at  the  age  when 
Nature  study  the  ^he  child  first  enters  school  he  is  most 
child's  starting-  fully  alive  to  his  environment.  His 
P^^*^*  senses  are  at  their  best,  his  mind  in- 

quisitive, his  interest  keen  in  all  that  touches  his  life  and 
its  activities.  He  is  an  explorer,  ready  to  enter  on  adven- 
tures of  discovery  in  the  rich  world  of  nature  that  lies 
about  him.  Now  is  the  time  to  lay  the  foundation  for 
later  work  in  geography,  in  agriculture,  in  hygiene,  in 
science.  Here  is  the  basis  for  training  in  language,  and 
here  an  endless  number  of  rich  themes  for  stories  to  be 
told  or  read  or  written,  and  for  pictures  to  be  drawn  or 
painted. 

In  nature  study  also  is  the  opportunity  to  teach  an 
appreciation  for  the  life  of  the  open  country.  Because 
those  who  give  their  lives  to  agriculture  must  live  in 
direct  and  immediate  contact  with  the  great  out-of-doors, 
the  rural  school  should  especially  seek  to  cultivate  in  the 
child  a  deep  and  reverent  appreciation  for  nature  in  all 
her  moods.  The  love  of  field  and  flower,  joy  in  the  songs 
of  birds  and  the  hum  of  bees,  and  delight  in  the  waving 
green  of  corn  and  the  gold  of  wheat,  may  not  directly 
affect  the  yield  of  crops  or  the  price  of  products.  Yet 
they  are  one  of  the  great  compensations  belonging  to  the 
worker  of  the  soil  and  will  add  riches  to  any  life. 

One  of  the  causes  of  desertion  of  the  farm  for  the  life 
of  the  city  is  the  monotony  and  sameness  of  the  work  of 
The  penalty  of  the  farm.    How  greatly  could  this  be 

blindness  to  beauty  relieved  if  every  boy  and  girl  could 
learn  to  be  interested  in  every  changing  phase  of  nature, 


70  BETTER    RURAL    SCHOOLS 

and  come  to  enjoy  its  companionship!  But  to  many  of 
those  who  spend  their  lives  in  the  country,  the  beauties 
of  which  the  city  dweller  dreams  and  for  which  he  longs 
while  imprisoned  in  his  narrow  shop  or  office,  have  be- 
come a  mere  commonplace  and  possess  no  significance. 
The  teeming  hills  are  often  looked  on  as  but  so  many 
acres  to  be  plowed  or  harvested ;  the  sun  setting  in  a  blaze 
of  glory  only  suggests  milking  time;  and  the  multiform 
life  around  us  is  regarded  solely  in  the  light  of  its  market 
value.  Let  the  rural  school  teach  the  children  of  the 
farms  to  see  beauty  as  well  as  profit  in  their  environment, 
and  much  will  have  been  done  to  cure  the  farm  of  its 
lack  of  attractiveness,  and. a  great  source  of  satisfaction 
and  joy  will  have  been  added  to  the  daily  toil. 

More  concretely,  the  teaching  of  nature  study  will 
center  about  such  aims  as:  (i)  to  give  a  first-hand 
knowledge  of  nature,  that  the  child  may  come  to  under- 
stand and  love  it,  and  more  fully  obey  its  laws  and  claim 
its  rewards;  (2)  to  learn  the  useful  and  harmful  in 
nature,  as  a  guide  to  better  hygienic  living,  and  more 
successful  farming;  (3)  to  establish  the  basis  for  subse- 
quent study  of  the  natural  sciences,  including  geography 
and  agriculture,  and  to  obtain  a  point  of  departure  for 
the  study  of  language. 

Nature  study  is  the  basis  for  all  the  other  branches 
that  deal  with  our  physical  environment.  Out  of  nature 
,         ,  study  geography  gradually  emerges — 

riculture  have  "ot  the  catechetical  geography  of  the 

foundation  in  na-  older  day,  but  the  geography  that  tells 
of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man.  Be- 
ginning wherever  the  experience  of  the  pupils  touches 
nature  in  their  immediate  environment,  geography  will 
proceed  out  to  other  parts  of  the  home  land  and  to  other 


THE   REORGANIZED    CURRICULUM        71 

lands.  What  people  live  in  each  country,  what  they  raise 
and  eat  and  wear,  the  language  they  speak,  the  homes 
and  schools  they  have,  how  they  travel  and  work  and 
play,  what  they  send  us  for  our  use,  and  what  we  return 
to  them — these  are  some  of  the  topics  the  new  geography 
will  include. 

Agriculture  is  a  natural  outgrowth  of  nature  study. 
Indeed,  a  great  part  of  nature  study  is  agriculture  under 
another  guise.  It  has  been  objected  that  the  elementary 
school  can  not  hope  to  teach  agriculture,  but  must  per- 
force leave  it  for  the  high  school.  Of  agriculture  as  an 
organized  science  this  is  true,  but  much  valuable  agricul- 
ture can  be  taught  without  a  full  mastery  of  its  science. 
Said  that  great  apostle  of  agriculture,  Doctor  Seaman 
A.  Knapp,  "Agriculture  consists  of  one-eighth  science, 
three-eighths  art,  and  one-half  business  methods."  The 
best  proof,  however,  of  what  the  rural  school  can  do  in 
agriculture  is  what  it  is  now  accomplishing  in  scores  of 
schools  scattered  through  many  states.  The  children  are 
learning  the  best  modes  of  planting  and  cultivating  crops, 
how  to  select  seed,  the  rotation  of  crops,  the  harmful 
insects  and  weeds,  the  art  of  gardening,  the  raising  of 
poultry,  the  care  of  stock  and  many  other  useful  things. 
Practical  agriculture  is  already  an  accomplished  fact  in 
the  rural  schools  that  have  reorganized  their  curricula. 

Home  economics  as  a  science  is  also  beyond  the  age  and 
grasp  of  the  child  in  the  elementary  school.    But,  as  in  the 

Home  economics  ^^^J^^^  °^  agriculture,  there  is  much 
begun  in  the  ele-  concrete  and  useful  matter  that  can 
mentary  school  ^^  better  taught  at  this  age  than  any 

other.  The  beginning  of  the  art  of  sewing,  the  selection 
and  care  of  foods,  plain  cooking,  serving,  the  routine 
care  of  the  home,  nursing,  the  principles  of  decorating, 


72  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

cleaning  and  keeping  the  house — these  are  more  art  than 
science  and  are  wholly  adapted  to  the  work  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.  Girls  from  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  grades 
are  at  the  stage  of  development  when  interest  in  the 
duties  of  the  home  should  be  taking  root,  and  when  girls 
should  become  a  real  help  to  their  mothers  in  the  care 
of  the  household.  The  time  is  therefore  ripe  for  instruc- 
tion along  the  line  of  these  interests,  and  the  opportunity 
is  present  for  thus  coordinating  the  work  of  the  school 
and  the  home. 

Personal  habits  and  standards,  one's  attitude  toward 
the  care  of  the  body,  rules  of  living,  methods  of  eating 
Habits  and  hygi-  ^"*^  sleeping  and  resting,  are  devel- 
ene  of  first  im-  oped  early  in  life.    James  tells  us  that 

portance  ^^^^  ^^^-^^^  ^^^  ^^j^  u^^^,,  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^ 

we  have  reached  our  middle  teens.  This  fact  gives  one 
great  reason,  therefore,  for  making  practical  hygiene  an 
important  subject  in  the  curriculum.  And  this  instruc- 
tion should  have  particular  bearing  on  right  living  under 
the  conditions  imposed  by  the  farm.  Food,  its  different 
qualities  and  adaptability  to  seasons  and  the  types  of 
labor ;  the  purity  of  drinking  water ;  the  hygiene  of  cloth- 
ing, and  its  seasonal  varieties;  the  relations  of  work, 
recreation  and  play ;  the  care  of  the  skin,  nails,  teeth  and 
hair ;  the  effects  of  tobacco  in  reducing  physical  efficiency ; 
the  more  obvious  facts  bearing  on  the  relation  of  bacteria 
to  food  and  to  disease ;  the  means  to  be  taken  to  protect 
against  the  common  ailments  or  the  spread  of  contagious 
diseases, — these  are  practical  matters  which  every  child 
can  be  taught  without  waiting  for  mastery  of  technical 
science  as  a  foundation. 

Manual  training  in  its  more  technical  aspects  is  not  a 


THE   REORGANIZED    CURRICULUM        73 

subject  for  the  earlier  grades  of  the  elementary  school, 

but  should  be  left  for  the  last  two  years,  or  even  for  the 

-,        ,  ^    •  .       „    hiph  school,  where  the  latter  is  avail- 
Manual  training  a       »  ,       ,    , 
part  of  the  cur-         able.     Much  valuable  knowledge  can, 

riculum  however,  be  given  as  early  even  as 

the  fifth  grade.  Boys  can  be  taught  the  care  and  use 
of  tools,  the  making  of  simpler  articles  for  the  farm  or 
the  home,  the  nature  of  the  different  woods,  their  avail- 
ability for  various  uses,  their  finish  and  protection,  and 
many  other  useful  lines  of  information.  The  handling  of 
tools  in  the  school  should  result  in  every  boy  being  sup- 
plied with  a  bench  and  a  full  complement  of  tools  in  the 
home  shop,  together  with  the  different  varieties  of  lumber 
needed  for  miscellaneous  work  about  the  house  and  barns. 

Music  should  constitute  a  part  of  the  rural-school 
program.  The  country  child  has  a  full  right  to  the  finer 
Music  and  art  to  aspects  of  culture.  He  will  learn 
be  included  music  as  readily  as  the  city  child  and 

enjoy  it  not  less.  Every  schoolhouse  should  have  a  piano 
or  an  organ  as  a  part  of  its  equipment,  and  singing  should 
be  as  carefully  taught  as  any  other  subject.  A  practical 
method  for  the  cultivation  of  appreciation  for  music  is 
through  the  use  of  the  "talking-machine,"  which  can 
now  be  had  at  a  very  reasonable  price,  and  which  repro- 
duces good  music  with  artistic  excellence. 

Nor  should  the  study  of  art  be  neglected, — not  a  study 
of  the  technical  rules  of  painting,  but  training  in  the  ap- 
preciation of  good  pictures.  The  great  masterpieces 
are  now  available  in  excellent  copies  at  very  small  prices, 
and  should  form  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  for  every 
pupil.  The  result  will  be  not  only  a  love  of  art,  but  the  in- 
troduction of  worthy  pictures  into  the  home.  In  one  west- 


74  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

em  district  where  such  study  was  taken  up  in  the  school, 
more  than  one  hundred  good  pictures  were  framed  in  the 
school  manual -training  shop  and  hung  in  the  homes  of 
the  pupils  within  one  year. 

The  reorganized  curriculum  must  give  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  the  study  of  history.  The  man  or  woman  of 
History  to  deal  to-day  is  a  part  of  the  great  civiliza- 
with  life  of  people  tion  that  had  its  beginnings  in  the  far- 
away past  and  leads  on  to  a  limitless  future.  It  is  a  part 
of  education  to  come  into  close  and  vital  relation  with  this 
civilization,  to  feel  a  kinship  with  great  personages,  to 
enter  into  great  movements  and  events  and  feel  one's  self 
a  part  of  the  whole.  This  is  to  be  done  through  a  study 
of  history.  Nor  should  the  history  be  of  wars  and  politics 
alone,  but  should  reveal  the  life  and  spirit  of  peoples,  the 
growth  of  institutions,  the  rise  of  inventions,  the  devel- 
opment of  wealth  and  industries.  It  should  bring  before 
us  the  lives  of  the  great  men  and  women  of  all  times,  the 
deeds  they  have  done,  the  books  they  have  written,  the 
machines  they  have  made,  or  the  laws  they  have  enacted. 
In  short,  history  should  unroll  before  the  child  a  pan- 
orama of  life,  at  its  noblest  and  best,  to  serve  as  a  stimu- 
lus to  his  ambition  and  a  guide  to  his  acts. 

Practical  civics  should  constitute  an  important  part  of 
the  school  course.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  elemen- 
Importance  of  tary  pupil  shall  be  required  to  study 

concrete  civics  the  state  and  federal  constitutions,  or 

master  the  intricacies  of  the  governmental  machinery. 
Too  much  of  this  kind  of  matter  has  already  been  imposed 
on  our  children.  The  study  of  civics  should  begin  at  the 
points  where  the  township,  county,  state  or  federal  gov- 
ernment touches  the  interests  of  the  pupil.  How  the 
school  is  supported  and  controlled ;  how  the  bridges  and 


THE   REORGANIZED    CURRICULUM        75 

roads  are  built  and  repaired ;  the  responsibility  and  duties 
of  township  and  county  officers;  the  work  of  health 
officers;  quarantine  regulations  and  their  need;  postal 
rules  and  regulations ;  the  school  law  as  related  to  pupils 
and  patrons, — these  and  similar  topics  suggest  what  may 
well  be  taught  the  child  in  civics. 

Such,  then,  is  the  basis  of  the  reorganized  curriculum, 
the  core  around  which  other  work  will  center.  Reading, 
language  and  arithmetic  will  not  be  neglected.  Indeed, 
they  will  be  more  efficiently  taught  and  better  learned 
than  in  the  old  type  of  school,  for  the  spirit  and  the  mo- 
tives will  be  changed.  And  what  has  been  largely  a 
mechanical  task  will  become  pregnant  with  interest  and 
value. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  Is  there  any  danger  that  we  shall  become  so  inter- 
ested in  the  newer  subjects  of  agriculture,  manual  train- 
ing and  home  economics  that  we  shall  neglect  other  sub- 
jects?   How  may  we  guard  against  such  a  result? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  occupations  represented  by 
the  pupils  of  a  rural  school,  and  compare  with  a  list  of  the 
occupations  represented  by  the  pupils  of  a  town  school. 
What  bearing  has  the  result  on  the  possibility  of  voca- 
tional training  in  each  type  of  school? 

3.  Have  you  known  children  who  seemed  bright  and 
capable  when  they  first  entered  school  to  become  dull  and 
listless  after  a  year  or  two  of  attendance?  How  far  is 
the  school  responsible  for  all  such  laggards  ? 

4.  Make  a  study  of  the  reorganized  curriculum  as 
shown  in  the  drawing  of  the  tree.  Then  make  another 
similar  drawing  representing  the  curriculum  as  is  exists 


76  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

in  the  old  type  of  school.    Compare  the  efficienc-y  of  the 
two  methods  of  education. 

5.  Suppose  a  teacher  agrees  that  nature  study  is  the 
best  point  of  departure  in  teaching  the  child  but  does  not 
know  enough  about  nature  himself  to  make  this  method 
effective;  what  are  the  dangers  to  be  guarded  against? 
What  is  the  remedy  ? 

6.  What  use  can  be  made  of  music  to  render  the  rural 
school  and  the  life  of  the  rural  home  more  attractive? 
What  percentage  of  children  can  with  proper  instruction 
be  made  fair  singers?  Would  a  piano  be  a  good  invest- 
ment for  a  rural  school  ?  How  many  of  your  pupils  have 
one  in  their  homes  ? 

7.  Do  you  believe  that  good  pictures  can  be  made  as 
educative  as  good  literature?  If  you  were  asked  to 
recommend  pictures  suitable  for  schoolroom  decoration 
and  study,  what  ones  would  you  select?  How  would 
your  list  differ  if  you  were  recommending  for  the  home  ? 

8.  Is  it  possible  to  lead  children  to  like  history?  Do 
you  count  any  teaching  of  history  or  literature  a  success 
that  does  not  result  in  an  interest  in  the  subject?  How 
much  bearing  has  the  teacher's  own  interest  in  any  branch 
to  do  with  the  pupil's  attitude  toward  it  ? 


CHAPTER  V 

CORRELATION 

The  curriculum  has  in  recent  years  grown  not  only 
vastly  richer  and  more  interesting,  but  much  fuller,  as 
well.  The  broadening  of  education  and  the  demand  for 
studies  of  a  more  practical  type  have  thus  placed  an  in- 
creasing burden  on  both  pupil  and  teacher.  So  much 
material  has  been  added  that  the  elementary  course  of 
study  now  includes  a  greater  variety  and  amount  of  sub- 
ject-matter than  was  required  for  admission  to  college 
several  generations  ago.  And  the  high-school  graduate 
of  to-day  has  certainly  been  forced  to  cover  more  ground 
than  was  demanded  to  graduate  from  Harvard  at  the  time 
when  Longfellow  was  a  member  of  the  faculty. 

The  rural  school  has  also  felt  the  effect  of  this  change. 
To  the  reading,  arithmetic  and  writing  of  the  earlier 
Growth  of  rural-  schools,  geography  was  added,  and 
school  curriculum  then  grammar.  History  soon  found 
its  way  in,  and  was  followed  by  physiology  and  that  by 
language  lessons.  Then  came  nature  study.  Music  and 
drawing  next  added  their  claims.  And  now  come  the 
formidable  trio,  agriculture,  manual  training  and  do- 
mestic science,  each  of  which  offers  almost  limitless  op- 
portunities for  extension  and  subdivision.  It  is  evident 
therefore  that  we  have  greatly  enriched  the  curriculum 
and  made  it  vastly  more  helpful;  but  we  have  also 
doubled  and  trebled  the  amount  to  be  learned  and  taught. 

17 


78  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

It  requires  no  argument  to  show  that  this  expansion  of 
the  curriculum,  which  represents  a  true  social  demand 

Danger  of  over-  ^"^  "^^  ^^^  theory  of  any  group  of 
working  teacher  educators,  can  not  go  on  indefinitely, 
and  pupil  There  are  those  who  say  that  we  are 

already  asking  too  much  of  the  child,  to  the  danger  of  his 
physical  health  and  development.  Certain  it  is,  at  least, 
that  we  have  overwhelmed  the  rural  teacher  with  the 
amount  and  variety  of  the  work  we  have  thrust  on  him. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  rural  child  has  been  over- 
worked; he  does  not  go  to  school  regularly  enough,  and 
the  school  year  is  not  long  enough  to  injure  his  health. 
But  there  is  grave  danger  in  another  direction :  namely, 
that  we  shall  attempt  to  teach  him  so  much  in  so  short  a 
time  that  he  will  learn  nothing  well.  It  is  possible  to 
hurry  pupils  over  so  great  an  amount  of  matter  that  none 
of  it  is  mastered.  They  may  get  a  smattering  of  many 
fields  of  knowledge  and  still  not  know  much  about  any 
particular  field.  They  may  learn  to  do  a  great  variety  of 
things  indifferently,  but  fail  to  do  anything  well. 

Nor  is  the  remedy  for  this  unfortunate  situation  to  re- 
fuse the  newer  subjects  admittance  to  the  course  of  study. 
Principles  under-  ^^r  this  is  in  effect  saying  that  the 
lying  revision  of  old  school  was  good  enough  for  our 
curncu  um  parents,  therefore  it  is  good  enough 

for  our  children.  Some  are  inclined  to  cry  "fad"  when- 
ever anything  new  is  proposed ;  but  this  is  the  essence  of 
stagnation  and  fogyism.  The  better  plan  is  to  examine 
the  curriculum  with  two  questions  in  mind :  ( i )  whether 
it  contains  any  matter  that  might  well  give  way  to  the 
new  subjects  proposed;  and  (2)  whether  by  improving 
the  organisation  of  the  curriculum  we  can  not  find  a  place 


CORRELATION  79 

for  the  new  without  adding  to  the  burdens  of  either 
learner  or  teacher.  To  put  the  matter  concretely,  agri- 
culture, manual  training  and  domestic  science  are  in- 
sistently demanding  a  place  in  the  rural-school  curricu- 
lum of  the  present  day.  How  can  we  find  a  place  for 
them  without  injustice  to  pupil  or  teacher  or  to  other 
necessary  subjects? 

The  first  phase  of  the  question  has  already  been  an- 
swered in  part  in  the  foregoing  chapter  on  the  reorgan- 
The  principle  of  ^^^^  curriculum,  where  the  possibility 
correlation  of  eliminating  much  relatively  useless 

matter  was  shown.  Hence  this  topic  need  not  again  be 
discussed.  But  a  not  less  important  factor  in  the  matter 
is  that  of  introducing  better  organization  into  the  cur- 
riculum through  correlation. 

Without  concerning  ourselves  about  a  technical  defi- 
nition, we  may  say  that  correlation  means  the  combining 
What  correla-  ^^  bringing  together  of  different  sub- 

tion  is  jects,  or  parts  of  subjects,  that  are 

naturally  related.  Thus  certain  parts  of  geography  and 
history  are  most  naturally  and  easily  taught  together. 
Language  is  usually  better  learned  in  connection  with 
other  subjects  than  when  studied  separately.  Arithmetic 
naturally  finds  its  most  practical  and  helpful  exercises  in 
connection  with  agriculture,  manual  training,  or  some 
other  concrete  subject. 

Such  subjects  as  are  thus  related  can  be  taught  to- 
gether, not  only  with  great  saving  of  time,  but  also  with 
enormous  increase  of  efficiency.  A  language  exercise 
growing  out  of  a  lesson  in  cooking,  a  nature  study  ex- 
cursion, or  the  testing  of  seed-corn  performs  the  double 
service  of  training  in  expression  while  at  the  same  time  it 


8o  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

helps  to  carry  out  the  work  in  domestic  science,  agricul- 
ture, or  whatever  else  is  under  consideration.  Similarly, 
a  large  part  of  the  arithmetic  required  in  the  elementary 
school  can  best  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  problems 
of  the  farm,  the  shop,  the  kitchen,  or  the  school  garden. 
And  this  method  is  both  natural  and  right;  for  in  the 
actual  affairs  outside  the  school  the  child  never  has  the 
necessity  of  language  exercises  separated  from  the  im- 
mediate necessity  of  expressing  something  that  needs  to 
be  said ;  nor  does  he  meet  the  need  of  working  arithmetic 
problems  of  a  fanciful  and  imreal  sort,  but  rather  those 
immediately  connected  with  what  he  is  doing  on  the  farm 
or  in  the  shop.  The  closer,  therefore,  we  can  keep  lan- 
guage and  number  tied  up  with  the  real  and  concrete  ex- 
periences of  the  child,  the  more  efficient  and  useful  will 
be  his  knowledge  of  them. 

How  great  an  incentive  the  concrete  interests  may  be- 
come in  leading  to  mastery  was  discovered  by  a  manual- 
Correlation  stimu-  training  teacher  in  a  consolidated 
lates  interest  school.     In  the  manual-training  class 

was  a  boy  of  some  thirteen  years  who  was  skilled  in  the 
use  of  his  fingers  but  indifferent  to  arithmetic  and  me- 
chanical drawing.  One  day  Joe  came  to  his  teacher,  all 
excitement.  If  Joe  would  make  the  body  of  a  runabout 
in  the  manual-training  shop,  his  father  would  purchase 
the  running  gear  and  engine  and  give  him  the  machine. 
But  the  teacher  demurred  at  the  request  that  he  start  at 
once  on  the  work.  He  said  to  Joe,  "You  know  you  can 
not  do  the  required  drawing  and  computations  for  this 
job.  You  don't  know  your  arithmetic  well  enough,  and 
you  are  careless  in  your  drawing."  Joe  was  disappointed, 
but  not  discouraged.  So  he  made  this  tentative  proposi- 
tion to  his  teacher:    "Suppose  I  do  get  my  arithmetic 


CORRELATION  8l 

and  drawing?'*  "When  you  have  done  that  satisfacto- 
rily," promised  the  teacher,  "I  will  see  you  through  the 
construction."  That  was  enough ;  Joe  now  needed  these 
branches  in  his  business,  and  he  went  to  work  at  them. 
He  made  arithmetic  and  drawing  the  great  aim  of  his 
life ;  he  figured  constructions,  drew  to  scale,  and  kept  on 
figuring  and  drawing  until  he  was  fully  master  of  all 
that  was  required  for  the  work  in  hand.  Then  his  teacher 
started  him  upon  the  automobile,  and  Joe  is  to-day  driv- 
ing it  with  great  pride.  But  better  still,  Joe  has  kept  up 
his  interest  in  arithmetic  and  drawing,  and  is  now  leader 
of  his  class  in  both  of  these  subjects.  What  Joe  needed, 
and  what  many  another  boy  needs,  is  an  immediate  in- 
centive for  his  work  growing  out  of  some  interesting 
activities  of  his  daily  life;  this  is  to  say  that  he  needs 
better  correlation  in  his  work. 

Correlation  can  not  be  forced.  The  subjects  or  topics 
put  together  must  naturally  belong  together,  and  must 
Correlation  must  grow  clearer  and  more  interesting  and 
be  natural  practical  for  their  union.    The  actual 

life  and  experience  of  the  child  is  really  the  basis  of  all 
true  correlation ;  things  that  the  child  finds  belonging  to- 
gether in  his  activities  can  well  be  put  together  in  teach- 
ing him.  But  no  amount  of  combining  or  relating  ex- 
cept as  these  relations  are  clearly  seen  by  the  pupil  and 
felt  by  him  to  be  natural  and  right  will  serve ;  for  false 
correlation  may  be  as  artificial  as  the  method  that  ignores 
all  correlation,  and  therefore  only  result  in  jumble  and 
confusion. 

An  amusing  illustration  of  an  attempt  at  forced  corre- 
lation was  heard  in  a  school  where  the  teacher  had  come 
to  know  just  enough  of  correlation  to  make  it  a  fad,  but 
not  enough  fully  to  comprehend  it.  She  had  learned  that 


82  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

nature  study  is  a  good  basis  for  correlation,  but  did  not 
understand  how  to  use  it  for  this  purpose.  On  a  certain 
day  the  class  was  to  study  the  grasshopper ;  so  everything 
in  the  school  from  morning  till  night  concerned  grass- 
hoppers. The  morning  scripture-lesson  was  chosen  from 
the  twelfth  chapter  of  Ecclesiastes,  in  which  the  writer, 
drawing  a  picture  of  the  weakness  of  age  says,  "And  the 
grasshopper  shall  be  a  burden."  Special  emphasis  was 
placed  on  this  statement,  and  the  weight  of  a  grasshopper 
estimated.  The  arithmetic  lesson  consisted  of  the  solu- 
tion of  problems  having  to  do  with  the  number  of  legs 
so  many  grasshoppers  would  have,  and  the  number  of 
jumps  required  for  a  grasshopper  to  travel  such  and 
such  a  distance.  The  spelling  lesson  dealt  wholly  with 
the  names  of  the  parts  of  the  grasshopper.  The  language 
lesson  was  made  up  of  grasshopper  stories.  The  drawing 
lesson  consisted  of  pictures  of  grasshoppers.  For  general 
exercises  the  teacher  told  a  story  of  great  plagues  of 
grasshoppers  visiting  different  sections  of  the  country. 
And  for  a  geography  lesson,  the  grasshopper  region  of 
early  days  in  the  Middle  West  was  considered.  In  fact 
this  was  a  grasshopper  day  in  the  school.  The  children 
read  grasshoppers,  talked  grasshoppers  and  thought 
grasshoppers  from  morning  until  night.  The  teacher 
prided  herself  that  she  was  using  the  ''method  of  correla- 
tion," whereas  she  was  only  wasting  time  on  a  ridiculous 
device  possessing  neither  value  nor  sense.  The  trouble 
was  that  grasshoppers  were  not  naturally  related  in  any 
way  to  the  experience  of  the  pupils,  but  were  forced  on 
them.  There  was  no  natural  basis  for  the  correlations 
made.  Attempts  at  correlation  Just  as  fruitless,  if  not  so 
ludicrous,  are  not  uncommon. 

The  reason  why  nature  study,  gardening,  cooking,  cornv 


CORRELATION  83 

judging,  the  handicrafts  and  school  excursions  are  the 

best  basis  for  correlation  is  that  they  involve  practical 

T         J-  ^    .  ^  and  immediate  interests,  and  supply 

Immediate  inter-  .  '  \^  ■' 

ests  the  natural  the  necessity  for  language,  spelling, 
basis  of  correlation  arithmetic,  drawing,  etc.  The  boy 
who  is  interested  in  an  experiment  in  corn  raising,  or  the 
girl  who  is  interested  in  cooking  a  new  kind  of  dish,  will 
naturally  desire  to  tell  about  it ;  here,  then,  is  the  oppor- 
tunity for  a  language  lesson.  For  the  first  thing  neces- 
sary in  learning  either  to  write  or  speak  is  to  have  some^ 
thing  to  say  that  one  really  wants  to  express  to  others. 
Similarly,  if  the  pupils  are  at  work  in  manual  training 
or  domestic  science,  there  will  be  mathematical  relations 
to  solve ;  this  gives  the  best  basis  for  the  teaching  of  a 
practical  and  concrete  arithmetic.  If  the  child  is  making 
a  box  he  needs  arithmetic  and  drawing;  his  own  ex- 
perience and  desire  will  demand  them.  Therefore  arith- 
metic and  drawing  naturally  and  easily  correlate  with 
these  subjects.  If  he  is  testing  seed-corn  or  computing 
the  waste  in  uncleaned  clover-seed,  he  must  know  frac- 
tions and  percentage  in  order  to  solve  and  state  his  prac- 
tical problem ;  the  best  teaching  of  fractions  and  per- 
centage that  he  can  possibly  have,  therefore,  is  that  con- 
nected with  these  real  experiences.  And  so  we  might  go 
on  multiplying  illustrations  of  this  principle  among  the 
other  school  subjects;  much  of  geography  and  history 
are  vitally  related  and  can  be  best  taught  and  understood 
by  having  this  relation  made  clear  and  explicit;  and  not 
a  small  proportion  of  our  literature  is  closely  connected 
with  historical  events,  with  the  forms  of  nature  round 
about  us,  or  with  experiences  common  to  daily  life.  It 
is  at  such  points  as  these  that  correlation  is  both  natural 
and  necessary. 


84  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

Two  great  reasons,  then,  for  making  use  of  the  princi- 
ple of  correlation  in  the  rural  school  are:  (i)  correla- 
tion saves  time,  and  (2)  it  makes  the  matter  learned  both 
more  useful  and  more  interesting. 

The  amount  of  time  that  can  be  saved  by  skilfully  cor- 
relating language,  spelling  and  arithmetic  with  nature 
Sa  'ne-  time  study,  domestic  science  and  agricul- 

through  correla-  ture  is  an  important  factor  in  making 
**°"  use  of  the  modern  curriculum.   Time 

must  be  saved  somewhere  if  we  are  to  take  advantage 
of  many  new  things  now  available  for  the  education  of 
our  children;  and  it  can  be  saved  in  this  way,  not  only 
without  loss,  but  with  positive  gain.  If  the  skilful  nature- 
study  teacher  makes  a  part  of  the  lesson  a  written  or  oral 
description  of  what  the  child  sees  or  does  in  the  lesson, 
and  at  the  same  time  gives  attention  to  the  form  of  ex- 
pression, there  will  be  little  need  for  a  formal  language 
lesson  on  this  day.  Two  birds  have  been  killed  with  the 
one  stone ;  the  description  helped  in  the  nature  lesson  and 
it  was  also  in  the  truest  sense  a  language  lesson,  since 
it  was  based  on  real  experience.  Similarly,  language  can 
be  taught  in  connection  with  geography,  history,  or  any 
other  subject,  providing  the  teacher  does  not  become  care- 
less and  neglect  the  matter  of  expression  while  teaching 
the  facts  involved  in  the  lesson.  Likewise  most  of  the 
spelling  classes  could  well  be  dispensed  with,  and  not 
a  few  of  the  arithmetic  lessons  combined  with  the  prac- 
tical work  of  agriculture,  manual  training  and  domestic 
science.  And  this  would  all  result  in  a  saving  of  time 
for  both  teacher  and  pupil. 

This  method  also  greatly  increases  the  efficiency  of  the 
pupil  by  making  his  knowledge  more  practical  and  usable. 


CORRELATION  85 

It  is  so  easy  to  learn  a  set  of  facts  divorced  from  any 
immediate  need  for  them,  and  then  when  the  need  arises, 
Correlation  leads  "ot  know  how  to  apply  the  facts.  In 
to  efficiency  proof    of    this,    how    many   children 

there  are  who  can  work  the  hard  problems  of  the  arith- 
metic text,  but  can  not  solve  the  practical  problems  of 
the  household  accounts  or  compute  the  value  of  the  farm 
crops!  The  arithmetic  they  learned  lacked  correlation 
with  actual  affairs.  There  are  many  who  can  spell  well 
from  the  spelling-book,  but  who  strew  misspelled  words 
thickly  over  their  written  pages;  their  spelling  failed  of 
correlation  with  the  practical  needs  of  spelling.  There 
are  many  who  can  glibly  recite  the  rules  for  grammar 
and  punctuation,  but  who  violate  them  freely  in  actual 
usage ;  they  need  to  learn  the  rules,  not  as  so  much  sepa- 
rate information,  but  in  connection  with  the  necessity 
for  putting  them  into  practise  in  every-day  speech  and 
writing. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  in  the  space  available  to 
outline  any  complete  plan  of  correlation.  A  few  sugges- 
tions taken  from  the  work  of  successful  rural  teachers 
will,  however,  show  some  of  the  practical  applications 
of  correlation  that  can  be  made  in  the  rural  school : 

The  nature-study  lesson  was  on  birds,  and  pictures  in 
natural  colors  of  several  birds  native  to  the  region,  such 
Correlation  with  ^^  *^^  bluebird,  the  robin,  the  barn 
basis  of  nature  swallow   and  the   woodpecker,   were 

^^^^y  brought  before  the  class  and  studied 

and  discussed.  An  observation  lesson  was  then  assigned, 
each  child  seeking  to  discover  one  or  more  of  the  birds 
described,  and  to  study  its  appearance,  flight,  habits,  and, 
if  possible,  nesting  place.  Besides  affording  excellent 
training  in  observation  this  supplied  the  basis  for  botj) 


86  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

oral  and  written  language  lessons  of  the  most  interesting 
kind. 

The  next  thing  taken  up  was  the  range  or  area  of 
country  each  family  of  birds  appropriates  for  its  home. 
The  bluebird  was  found  to  range  over  the  whole  United 
States  west  as  far  as  Colorado,  and  to  winter  in  the 
southern  part  of  North  America;  it  was  discovered 
that  the  robin  inhabits  all  the  United  States  except 
the  gulf  states,  and  so  on.  This  phase  of  the 
study  at  once  brought  in  the  necessity  for  geography, 
and  the  map  came  into  use  to  find  where  the  birds  live. 
The  climate  naturally  required  discussion  to  determine 
why  the  barn  swallow  is  not  found  in  the  South  Atlantic 
states,  nor  the  bluebird  in  the  western  states.  The  study 
of  the  food  of  the  birds  showed  that  sixty  per  cent,  of 
tlie  bluebird's  diet  is  made  up  of  grasshoppers,  beetles, 
caterpillars  and  the  like,  and  that  thirty-two  per  cent,  is 
vegetable  food,  chiefly  wild  berries ;  that  the  robin's  food 
is  about  half  worms  and  insects,  many  of  which  are 
harmful;  that  the  barn  swallow's  tireless  darting  flight 
is  a  relentless  war  on  winged  insects,  more  than  one- 
third  of  which  are  flies ;  and  that  the  woodpecker  lives 
chiefly  on  a  diet  of  harmful  orchard  insects. 

So  seemingly  simple  a  series  of  nature-study  lessons 
as  these,  touched  a  marvelously  wide  range  of  interests 

Points  of  contact  ^^^^  ^"  ^"^  °^*  °^  ^^^°°^'  ^^^  ^^^^' 
reached  through  themselves  were  worth  studying  as  a 
nature  study  p^^.^  ^f  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^.j^  ^f  mature,  but 

their  study  at  once  led  into  other  fields,  and  language, 
both  oral  and  written,  geography,  agriculture  and  draw- 
ing were  all  naturally  reached  from  this  starting-point. 
For  several  days  the  children  vied  with  one  another  in 
giving  interesting  descriptions  and  narrations  based  on 


CORRELATION  87 

their  observations  or  study.  Geographical  locations, 
distances  and  directions  were  learned.  Climatic  condi- 
tions in  different  parts  of  the  country  were  noticed,  and 
the  insect  life  and  vegetation  of  various  regions  investi- 
gated. The  relation  to  crops  was  made  clear,  and  the 
pupils  were  taught  to  protect  the  birds  instead  of  destroy- 
ing them. 

A  further  study  of  birds  revealed  the  astonishing  fact 
that  the  stomachs  of  flickers  have  been  found  to  contain 

, .  ,       at  one  time  from  three  thousand  to 
A  lesson  on  birds      ^       ^,  j       .      ^1    ^  1      > 

five  thousand  ants ;  that  one  cuckoo  s 

stomach  has  been  the  receptacle  for  two  hundred  and  fifty 
American  tent  caterpillars,  and  another's  stomach  for 
two  hundred  and  seventeen  fall  webworms ;  that  one  day's 
feeding  of  a  nest  of  four  young  chipping  sparrows  dis- 
posed of  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  insects,  nearly  all 
of  which  were  harmful.  Where  accurate  or  approximate 
figures  such  as  these  are  available,  there  is  no  end  of  ma- 
terial for  practical  arithmetic  as  related  to  agriculture, 
thus  naturally  correlating  number  work  with  nature  study, 
while  showing  the  economic  value  of  birds. 

Another  teacher  of  seventh  or  eighth  grade  boys  was 
discussing  with  them  in  the  agriculture  class  the  best  type 
Correlation  with        ^f  Gorn-cribs  for  the  farm.   Each  boy 
agriculture  as  a        was  asked  to  make  careful  measure- 
^^^^  ments  of  the  home  cribs,  and  also  to 

bring  drawings  of  them.  The  drawings  were  compared 
and  discussed,  and  the  faulty  constructions  criticized. 
Growing  out  of  this,  naturally  arose  the  question  of  the 
capacity  of  the  different  cribs,  and  some  very  valuable 
lessons  in  farm  arithmetic  followed.  Before  this  work 
ended  every  boy  in  the  class  knew  the  shortest  and  most 
practical  methods  of  computing  the  capacity  of  corn- 


88  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

cribs  and  could  easily  and  quickly  measure  any  crib 
and  tell  how  many  bushels  it  contained.  One  farmer 
was  about  to  build  a  new  crib.  He  became  interested  in 
the  work  being  done  by  the  boys,  and  came  over  to  the 
school  to  seek  suggestions  and  advice,  and  finally  de- 
cided to  put  up  a  crib  of  the  new  and  approved  type. 
The  class,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  made  the 
estimate  of  lumber  for  his  crib,  figured  the  cost,  and  told 
him  just  how  many  bushels  it  would  hold.  When  the 
crib  was  under  construction,  the  class  made  several 
visits  of  inspection  to  study  the  details.  Three  things 
were  accomplished :  the  boys  learned  how  to  build  corn- 
cribs  ;  they  mastered  more  really  valuable  arithmetic  than 
is  sometimes  learned  in  a  whole  term;  and  they  gained 
a  strong  friend  for  the  school  by  being  able  to  offer  prac- 
tical help  to  the  farmer. 

With  the  many  concrete  problems  necessarily  arising 
in  connection  with  the  practical  work  in  agriculture,  in 
Agriculture  and  manual  training  and  in  home  econom- 
arithmetic  ics,  there  is  small  use  for  systema- 

tically plodding  through  all  the  problems  and  the  ordinary 
text-book  in  arithmetic.  Most  texts  in  arithmetic  are  con- 
structed with  other  occupations  than  farming  in  mind, 
and  the  problems  have  little  relation  to  matters  that  the 
pupils  know  about  or  will  ever  have  to  meet.  But  even  if 
we  had  a  practical  farm  arithmetic,  with  the  problems 
based  on  the  computations  relating  to  crops,  stock,  barns, 
ditches,  fences  and  the  like,  it  would  still  be  better  to 
make  th-e  greater  part  of  the  work  grow  immediately  out 
of  the  concrete  activities  being  carried  on  by  the  pupils 
themselves  in  the  home  and  the  school. 

In  a  class  in  home  economics  in  a  consolidated  school 
the  matter  of  artistic  designs  in  wall-paper  was  under 


CORRELATION  89 

discussion.  It  was  discovered  that  nearly  every  girl  in 
the  class  came  from  a  home  where  papering  was  soon  to 

Correlation  with  a  ^^  ^O"^'  K^^^'  t^^"'  ^^^  ^^^  ^PP^''" 
basis  of  home  eco-    tunity  to  correlate  the  work  in  home 

nomics  economics,  art  and  arithmetic.     De- 

signs for  the  paper  of  different  rooms,  such  as  bedrooms, 
living-rooms  and  parlors,  were  made  as  a  part  of  the 
study  in  drawing  and  art,  and  sent  to  a  near-by  dealer, 
who  supplied  samples  as  nearly  like  the  designs  as  pos- 
sible, to  be  studied  at  the  school.  Rooms  were  measured, 
the  required  amount  of  paper  was  computed,  and  the 
cost  of  papering  each  different  room  was  found.  The 
class  worked  at  the  problems  involved  with  great  inter- 
est, and  soon  found  themselves  able,  not  only  to  de- 
termine the  types  of  paper  best  suited  for  various  rooms, 
but  also  to  find  the  cost  accurately  and  quickly.  This 
line  of  study  naturally  led  to  the  question  of  paints  and 
varnishes,  and  much  useful  information  was  gathered 
concerning  the  composition  and  value  of  different  brands. 
Color  schemes  for  individual  rooms  were  worked  out, 
and  suitable  carpets,  rugs  and  curtains  decided  on.  In 
each  case  materials  and  cost  were  taken  into  account,  the 
girls  learning  many  new  facts  concerning  textiles  and 
coloring  stuffs,  and  developing  ability  in  household  arith- 
metic. 

One  county  in  Indiana  has  for  several  years  used  no 
regular  text-book  in  geography  below  the  seventh  grade. 
Geography  and  Yet  under  the  direction  of  a  wise  su- 

correlation  perintendent,    this    subject    has    been 

taught  with  unusual  success.  The  children  have  been 
systematically  set  at  work  to  discover  the  geographical 
data  of  their  vicinities.  Fields,  forests,  rivers,  hills  and 
ravines  have  been  explored.    Springs  have  been  investi' 


90  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

gated,  marshes  surveyed,  and  clay  beds  and  stone-quar- 
ries located  and  examined.  The  nature  of  the  soil  has 
been  determined  and  the  topography  of  the  county 
studied.  The  different  agricultural  products  have  been 
analyzed  and  a  comparison  made  with  the  output  of  the 
factories.  All  the  various  sources  of  wealth  have  been 
considered,  and  a  list  made  of  the  leading  industries.  A 
census  of  the  people  of  the  county  has  been  undertaken 
by  nationalities  and  occupations.  In  short,  the  study  of 
geography  has  been  made  so  immediate  and  concrete  that 
it  has  become  a  source  of  inspiration  and  delight  in  the 
schools.  And  when  the  text-books  are  taken  up  for  the 
study  of  other  regions  and  peoples,  the  descriptions  pos- 
sess a  reality  and  interest  which,  without  the  practical 
correlation  of  geography  with  life,  they  could  never  have 
had.  The  entire  subject  has  taken  on  a  new  meaning  be- 
cause it  is  connected  with  life  and  experience.  Out  of 
this  new  geography  also  have  come  scores  of  themes  for 
lessons  in  language  and  composition,  and  countless  prob- 
lems in  concrete  arithmetic,  besides  many  fruitful  topics 
for  the  study  of  local  history  and  civics. 

Teachers  who  have  adopted  a  practical  sane  system 
of  correlation  for  the  work  of  their  schools  have  every- 
where remarked  on  the  vitality  and  enthusiasm  that  have 
followed  in  the  school.  Especially  has  it  relieved  the 
deadness  and  drudgery  of  language  study.  Says  the  Hon- 
orable A.  B.  Martin,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture :  "Some  of  the  best  essays  I  have  ever  read 
and  some  of  the  best  speeches  I  have  ever  heard  have 
been  by  the  corn-club  boys  on  the  subject :  'How  I  grew 
my  acre  of  corn.'  **  An  Arkansas  corn-club  boy  wrote 
an  essay  that  the  professors  in  the  state  agricultural  col- 
lege pronounced  one  of  the  best  papers  on  corn  produc- 


CORRELATION  91 

tion  they  had  ever  seen.  This  paper,  written  by  a  school- 
boy, was  printed  by  thousands  and  distributed  as  a  guide 
to  corn  growing.  The  great  trouble  in  most  composi- 
tion work  is  not  lack  of  knowledge  of  language  forms,  but 
poverty  of  ideas  to  express,  and  the  absence  of  motives 
prompting  expression. 

It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  a  helpful  corre- 
lation of  school  and  home  work  such  as  we  have  de- 
Correlation  re-  scribed  can  be  accomplished  only  by 
quires  expert  the  teacher  who  possesses  a  wide 
teaching  range  of  practical  knowledge,  and  un- 
tiring zeal  and  industry.  The  teacher  must  have  mas- 
tered the  whole  field  of  study  covered  by  the  school  cur- 
riculum, and  have  a  broad  background  of  information  be- 
sides. He  must  also  know  the  industries  and  activities 
of  the  farm,  and  the  special  interests  and  needs  of  his 
particular  community.  He  must  be  at  home  in  the  great 
out-of-doors,  and  not  a  mere  master  of  text-books ;  and 
he  must  be  willing  to  devote  time,  thought  and  energy 
to  the  upbuilding  of  his  work.  Such  a  teacher  will  find 
rare  satisfaction  and  compensation  in  the  opportunities 
for  larger  helpfulness  ofifered  through  the  rational  corre- 
lation of  school  studies. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  Departmental  teaching  such  as  is  now  the  rule  in  the 
high  school  is  being  extended  into  the  upper  grades  of  the 
town  school.  Will  not  the  multiplication  of  subjects  soon 
make  this  necessary  in  the  rural  schools  as  well  ?  Is  there 
any  possibility  of  bringing  such  an  arrangement  about 
except  by  means  of  consolidated  schools  ? 

2.  How  will  the  actual  basis  for  correlation  in  the 


92  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

curriculum  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  country?     (Oc- 
cupation, home  interests,  etc.) 

3.  Have  you  ever  known  a  boy  who  lacked  interest 
in  his  home  work  suddenly  to  become  enthusiastic  in  it 
when  given  some  personal  share  in  the  returns?  How 
may  this  principle  be  applied  in  the  work  of  the  school  ? 

4.  The  term  "learned  ignoramus"  was  recently  used 
in  describing  a  certain  person  who  had  received  much 
schooling,  but  lacked  practical  ability.  How  is  the  situa- 
tion involved  in  this  case  related  to  this  chapter? 

5.  Is  there  danger  in  seeking  to  correlate  the  different 
studies  that  some  important  subjects  will  be  neglected? 
How  can  such  danger  be  avoided? 

6.  Try  working  out  a  plan  for  a  week's  lessons,  using 
nature  study  as  a  basis.  Using  agriculture  as  a  basis. 
Using  domestic  science  as  a  basis.  Using  manual  train- 
ing as  a  basis.  Which  subject  has  the  largest  number  of 
points  of  contact  with  other  studies  ? 

7.  Consider  your  own  school  program  and  determine 
whether  you  could  reduce  the  number  of  daily  recitations 
by  means  of  better  correlation.  What  subjects  will  be  the 
first  to  drop  out? 

8.  Similarly  consider  the  probable  increase  in  the  in- 
terest and  value  of  the  school  work  that  would  follow 
effective  correlation. 


CHAPTER  VI 


VOCATIONAL  TRAINING 


Rural  children  have  almost  everywhere  been  quitting 
school  as  soon  as  compulsory  education  laws  would  per- 
mit, and  in  thousands  of  cases  have  dropped  out  in  de- 
fiance of  the  law.  Educators  and  public-spirited  people 
are  gravely  concerned  over  this  exodus,  as  they  may  well 
be.  But  is  it  surprising  that  the  children  should  drop  out  ? 
What  with  inexperienced  teaching  and  poor  equipment, 
the  conditions  in  the  rural  school  have  not  been  inspiring 
at  best ;  but  added  to  this,  the  curriculum  has  been  at 
fault;  the  studies  have  been  such  that  the  pupils  have 
failed  to  see  any  close  relation  between  the  lessons  studied 
in  their  books  and  what  life  required  of  them  outside  of 
school.  Reared  in  the  freedom  of  the  country,  they  have 
felt  the  call  of  the  open,  but  they  have  been  wholly  tied 
down  in  their  school  work  within  the  four  walls  of  a  dingy 
and  uninviting  building.  Interested  in  growing  things, 
in  crops  and  cattle  and  horses,  they  have  been  given  a 
mental  pabulum  of  conjugations  and  declensions,  of  dates 
and  definitions,  of  rules  and  classifications.  Feeling  the 
pressure  of  real  problems  and  duties  resting  on  them,  they 
have  been  put  off  with  empty  drill  in  mental  gymnastics, 
in  the  dim  hope  that  in  some  way  this  process  might  help 
them  to  meet  their  responsibilities.  Small  wonder  that 
they  have  rebelled  against  the  school  and  sought  relief 

93 


94  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

from  such  irksome  tasks  in  the  real  affairs  of  every-day 
life. 

The  attitude  resulting  in  the  desertion  of  the  rural 
school  before  completing  its  course  can  never  be  changed 
Remedy  lies  in  by  lecturing  to  the  children  on  the  ad- 

vitalizing  school  vantages  of  an  education.  The  remedy 
is  deeper  than  this ;  it  lies  in  making  the  school  work  an 
actual  part  of  the  pupils'  lives,  and  its  lessons  so  valuable 
that  they  can  not  afford  to  miss  them.  In  other  words, 
the  rural  school  should  be  made  into  a  vocational  school, 
and  thus  related  immediately  to  the  activities  of  the  farm. 
This  does  not  mean  that  nothing  but  agriculture  and  the 
industrial  arts  shall  be  taught  in  the  rural  school;  but 
rather  that  these  things  shall  afford  the  point  of  contact 
between  the  school  work  and  the  home  life  and  interests 
of  the  pupils,  and  shall  shape  the  mode  of  approach  to 
all  other  subjects  of  study. 

This  close  relation  between  the  study  interests  and  the 
home  interests  is  especially  necessary  in  the  rural  school. 
Difference  in  atti-  ^or  the  children  of  the  farm  begin 
tude  of  rural  and  work  at  a  relatively  early  age,  and 
city  child  have  come  to  realize  its  value  and  feel 

its  responsibilities  long  before  the  city  child  thinks  of 
engaging  in  any  occupation  outside  of  school  hours.  The 
result  is  that  the  rural  child  develops  a  practical  turn  of 
mind,  and  has  a  tendency  to  look  on  education  if  its  prac- 
tical trend  is  not  evident  with  an  impatience  that  is  not 
felt  by  his  urban  cousin.  The  city  child  is  not  engaged 
on  anything  in  particular  outside  the  school,  and  hence 
has  no  definite  measure  of  the  immediate  interest  and 
value  of  his  education;  the  country  child  is  doing  real 
things,  and  confronting  actual  problems,  and  hence  has  a 
constant  tendency  to  compare  the  worth  of  the  time  spent 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  95 

in  school  with  the  time  spent  outside  of  school.  Without 
being  wholly  conscious  of  it  himself,  he  demands  prac- 
tical results  from  his  education. 

The  movement  for  vocational  education  in  this  country 
is  now  in  full  swing.  Six  states — Massachusetts,  New 
Growth  of  voca-  York,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Wis- 
tional  education  consin  and  Indiana — now  have  more 
or  less  complete  systems  of  vocational  instruction.  The 
newer  education  which  they  are  so  successfully  intro- 
ducing is  not  meant  to  replace  the  old,  but  to  supplement 
it,  by  giving  training  for  a  specific  employment  in  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  school  studies.  Elementary  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  is  now  required  in  the  schools  of  nearly 
half  the  states,  and  the  movement  is  extending  with  every 
session  of  the  legislatures.  It  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the 
next  few  years  will  see  vocational  training  a  part  of  the 
regular  education  of  a  very  large  proportion  of  all  our 
industrial  workers. 

The  rural  school  has  an  exceptional  responsibility  in 
carrying  out  its  share  of  this  new  problem.  Until  recent 
Responsibility  of  years  agricultural  production  has  been 
rural  school  able  to  keep  pace  with  the  increased 

food  demands  of  our  growing  cities.  As  the  hungry 
mouths  multiplied  in  number,  new  areas  were  put  under 
the  plow,  and  more  corn  and  wheat  raised.  Modern  ma- 
chines made  it  easy  to  cultivate  the  added  acres,  v/hich 
the  government  supplied ;  so  there  was  no  reason  to  hus- 
band the  resources  of  the  soil.  It  was  natural  that  much 
waste  should  occur  under  such  a  system ;  the  only  thought 
was  immediate  returns,  and  these  were  not  always  intelli- 
gently sought.  But  with  much  of  the  most  fertile  land 
greatly  exhausted  by  improper  methods  of  cultivation, 
and  with  the  free  public  lands  all  gone,  conditions  have 


96  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

greatly  changed.  The  value  of  land  has  constantly 
mounted,  and  the  price  of  produce  has  steadily  risen. 
The  old  wasteful  methods  will  no  longer  do.  An  im- 
portant part  of  the  conservation  of  our  resources  is  the 
education  of  the  boys  of  the  farms  for  the  great  indus- 
try on  which  they  are  to  engage.  They  must  be  trained 
for  their  vocation,  and  not  left  to  learn  by  costly  mis- 
takes what  they  may  easily  be  taught  by  simple  instruc- 
tion in  the  course  of  their  education.  The  rural  schools 
must  prepare  for  the  vocation  of  agriculture. 

It  is  argued  by  many  that  the  rural  schools  are  not 
equal  to  this  additional  burden.  It  is  said  that  the 
Rural  school  equal  teachers  are  not  prepared  to  teach 
to  the  task  these   subjects,   nor   are   the   schools 

equipped  for  teaching  them.  This  is  all  too  true  of  a 
large  proportion  of  the  rural  schools  of  the  present ;  but 
it  is  not  true  of  them  all,  and  the  conditions  are  rapidly 
changing  for  the  better.  Thousands  of  teachers  are 
studying  the  new  subjects  in  summer  schools,  or  taking 
time  off  to  master  them;  and  other  thousands  about  to 
enter  on  teaching  are  now  having  an  opportunity  to  pre- 
pare in  the  vocational  subjects  as  a  part  of  their  own 
education.  Many  rural  schools  are  equipping  for  the 
teaching  of  the  newer  branches  and  others  stand  ready 
to  act  whenever  conditions  are  ripe  for  the  introduction 
of  the  vocational  lines  of  work.  The  question  is  no  longer 
whether  we  shall  introduce  the  vocational  subjects  into 
rural  education,  but  how  can  it  best  be  done. 

One  point  is  clear  with  reference  to  the  introduction 
of  agriculture  and  allied  subjects  into  the  rural  schools: 
Vocational  studies  these  branches  must  be  taught  as  prac- 
must  be  practical  tical,  applied  subjects,  and  not  as  so 
many  detached  facts  or  so  much  class-room  theory.    The 


A  manual  training  class  and  what  it  made.  At  the  left  is  the  teacher, 
next  to  him  is  the  janitor.  What  this  class  made  out  of  school 
hours  could  have  been   sold   for  one  hundred   dollars 


A  high  school  class  at  work  in  an  Agricultural  Laboratory 


Judging  poultry  at  a  Rural  School 


Coop   and   brooder   made   by   boys   of   the   Manua'    Training   Department 
of  a  Consolidated  School 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  97 

*vork  in  agriculture  must  involve  real  practise  with  the 
planting  and  growing  of  crops,  the  care  and  breeding  of 
stock,  and  the  understanding  and  handling  of  soil.  The 
course  must  not  be  merely  a  text-book  course,  but  must 
make  the  text-book  a  means  of  studying  and  interpreting 
plants  and  animals  under  actual  farm  conditions.  Simi- 
larly, work  in  manual  training  must  not  deal  with  abstrac- 
tions, nor  must  the  shop  exercises  bear  chiefly  on  lines 
of  construction  foreign  to  the  farm  and  its  surroundings. 
Skill  with  tools  can  be  obtained  from  work  on  articles 
required  on  the  farm,  as  well  as  from  the  making  of 
bric-a-brac.  The  course  in  domestic  science  must  keep 
in  mind  the  farmhouse  and  rural  conditions,  and  adapt 
its  work  to  meet  these  needs.  For  only  in  such  ways 
can  the  new  branches  from  which  so  much  is  expected 
toward  revitalizing  the  rural  schools  accomplish  what  is 
demanded  of  them.  Agriculture,  manual  training  and  do- 
mestic science  are  not  a  panacea  for  the  ills  of  rural  edu- 
cation. There  is  no  magic  in  any  one  of  these  branches 
except  as  it  is  related  directly  to  the  life  and  needs  of 
the  pupils.  Agriculture  taught  from  a  text-book  in  the 
hands  of  a  teacher  unacquainted  with  living  plants  and 
animals  might  easily  become  as  dead  and  uninteresting 
as  a  list  of  conjugations  or  a  column  of  historical  dates. 
Domestic  science  presented  as  a  set  of  rules  and  ab- 
stract principles  is  not  superior  to  scientific  classifications 
or  linguistic  inflections  as  a  subject  of  study.  It  finds  its 
true  value  only  when  immediately  related  to  the  ex- 
perience and  problems  of  the  learner. 

Some  have  considered  practical  agriculture  an  impos- 
sible subject  in  rural  schools  because  of  lack  of  ground 
Rural  school  limi-  ^^^  ^he  planting  and  raising  of  crops 
tations  and  absence  of  facilities  for  the  study- 


98  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

ing  of  farm  animals.  In  addition,  the  school  runs  not 
more  than  eight  or  nine  months  a  year,  and  leaves  the 
school  agricultural  projects  without  care  at  the  very 
time  when  attention  is  most  needed  and  when  observation 
would  be  most  instructive. 

There  is  much  force  in  this  argument,  and  the  difficul- 
ties of  conducting  demonstration  and  experimental  work 
at  the  school  are  not  exaggerated.  Yet  this  does  not 
mean  that  the  whole  project  must  fall  through.  For 
there  are  different  ways  of  arriving  at  the  same  re- 
sults. 

In  the  first  place,  some  phases  of  instruction  can  be 
easily  and  effectively  carried  on  in  the  school  itself,  even 
Possibilities  of  i"  the  one-room  district  school  with 

one-room  school  jts  meager  equipment.  The  selection 
and  care  of  seed-corn,  and  the  methods  of  testing  it,  re- 
quire very  little  apparatus,  almost  no  expense,  and  prac- 
tically no  additional  room.  Similarly  the  testing  of  clover 
and  timothy  seed  for  freedom  from  noxious  weeds,  the 
method  of  treating  seed  oats  to  prevent  rust,  etc.,  can 
easily  be  accomplished.  Soils  can  be  examined  and  com- 
pared and  tested  and  their  suitability  to  different  crops 
determined.  With  the  cooperation  of  the  farmers  of  the 
community  and  experts  from  the  agricultural  schools, 
special  stock-and-grain-judging  contests  can  be  held.  All 
these  things  and  many  others  which  lie  at  the  very  founda- 
tion of  successful  farming,  require  not  special  laboratories 
and  equipment,  but  only  knowledge,  determination  and 
willingness  to  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  They  are 
wholly  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  district  school, 
and  need  be  hardly  less  effective  and  thorough  there  than 
,in  the  larger  school. 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  99 

The  range  of  agricultural  instruction  possible  to  the 
rural  school  is  not  limited,  however,  to  the  resources  of 
the  school  premises.  The  adjoining  farms,  fields  and 
flocks  vastly  extend  the  scope  of  the  school  laboratory. 
The  seed-corn  being  planted  on  a  neighboring  field ;  the 
stand  of  corn  on  the  farms  along  the  road;  the  history 
of  the  rotation  of  crops  in  the  neighborhood;  the  rust 
on  Farmer  Smith's  oats  and  the  smut  on  Farmer  Brow^n's 
com;  the  farm  animals  in  adjacent  pastures  or  barn- 
yards— these  are  all  as  easily  available  for  study  as  if  they 
were  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  school,  and  have  the 
advantage  of  being  entirely  real  and  concrete  problems. 

Once  the  neighborhood  becomes  interested  in  the 
school's  work  in  agriculture,  there  is  no  end  to  the  as- 
Community  sistance  that  will  be  willingly  and 
cooperation  gladly  rendered  by  the  patrons.  Va- 
rious rural  schools  in  Minnesota  have  found  it  possible  to 
install  Babcock  milk-testers,  the  children  bringing  samples 
of  milk  from  the  farm  for  the  purpose  of  the  test,  and 
taking  the  results  of  the  test  home  as  measures  of  the 
different  cows  of  the  herd.  In  another  community  each 
of  several  families  gladly  contributed  a  sitting  hen  for 
experimental  study  of  chicken-raising  at  the  school.  The 
hens  were  set  in  coops  made  in  the  manual-training  shop 
of  the  school  according  to  models  supplied  by  the  state 
agricultural  college.  When  the  chicks  were  hatched  the 
entire  school  day  by  day  studied  their  growth.  Each 
brood  was  fed  a  different  ration  prescribed  by  agricul- 
tural experts  for  a  test  of  feeding.  Other  details  of  care 
and  management  were  varied,  and  a  comparison  of  results 
was  made.  The  outcome  of  these  experiments  was  the 
doubling  of  the  poultry  industry  in  the  community,  and 


loo  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

the  application  of  methods  that  greatly  increased  the 
profits.  Better  still,  the  children  were  scientifically  in- 
structed in  a  paying  industry,  their  interest  in  both  the 
school  and  the  farm  was  strengthened,  and  the  school  and 
the  home  were  more  closely  related. 

One  of  the  most  promising  fields  for  the  development 
of  rural  vocational  training  is  what  is  coming  to  be  known 
"Home  project"  ^s  home  project  study.  The  aim  is  to 
work  interest  the  pupil  in  home  industrial 

work,  for  which,  when  satisfactorily  completed,  school 
credit  is  given.  There  are  two  distinct  plans  in  opera- 
tion, the  difference  being  chiefly  with  reference  (i)  to 
the  character  of  the  home  work  for  which  school  credit 
is  given,  and  (2)  the  relation  of  the  school  to  the  direc- 
tion or  oversight  of  the  work  carried  on  at  home. 

Under  the  first  plan,  which  originated  in  Massachu- 
setts and  has  now  been  widely  adopted  by  individual 
schools  throughout  the  country,  each  pupil,  with  the  ad- 
vice of  his  teacher,  selects  some  definite  piece  of  work 
to  be  done  at  home,  in  part  under  the  direction  and  super- 
vision of  the  school.  The  work  selected  must  be  of  such 
character  that  it  can  be  carried  through  from  beginning 
to  completion  by  the  pupil,  who  is  required  to  pursue 
supplementary  reading  and  study  on  his  home  project  as 
a  part  of  the  school  work.  The  teacher  or  a  special  su- 
pervisor occasionally  visits  the  home,  inspects  the  pupil's 
work,  and  gives  necessary  suggestions  or  directions.  The 
consent  of  the  parents  for  the  pupil  to  take  up  the  pro- 
ject must  be  obtained,  and  their  hearty  cooperation  as- 
sured. In  Massachusetts  the  work  on  the  project,  to- 
gether with  the  reading  and  study  necessary  to  carry  it 
out,  requires  about  one-half  of  the  pupil's  time. 

Among  the  home  projects  being  successfully  under- 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  loi 

taken  by  either  boys  or  girls  are  the  following :  The  rais- 
ing and  care  of  a  pen  of  poultry ;  planting  and  cultivating 
Types  of  home  ^  section  of  a  vegetable  garden ;  car- 

projects  ing  for  and  picking  the  fruit  from  a 

part  of  an  orchard ;  setting  out  and  cultivating  a  patch  of 
berries;  preparing  the  ground  for  planting,  cultivating 
and  harvesting  a  specified  crop  of  potatoes  or  corn  ;  caring 
for  one  or  two  cows,  including  the  feeding  of  a  specified 
ration,  cleaning,  milking  and  testing  the  milk ;  the  feeding 
of  a  pen  of  pigs ;  the  building  of  a  chicken  house,  porch  or 
sidewalk ;  the  canning  of  a  crop  of  tomatoes,  berries,  or 
fruit;  the  doing  of  a  specific  phase  of  household  work, 
such  as  setting  the  table,  serving  the  meals,  making  beds, 
cleaning  and  dusting;  planning,  cutting  and  making  gar- 
ments, etc. 

The    coordination    of    school    and    home    work    has 
proved  eifective  wherever  it  has  been  fairly  tried.    True, 

.     ,        it    entails    additional    work    on    the 
Success  attained        ,       ,  ,  •     i     i        i          ^i 

teacher,  particularly  where  there  are 

no  special  supervisors  to  have  general  oversight  of 
the  home  work;  for  it  requires  that  the  teacher 
shall  occasionally  visit  the  home  for  the  inspection 
of  the  pupil's  work.  The  advantages  arising  from 
the  better  spirit  of  cooperation  and  study  in  the  school, 
and  from  the  loyal  support  of  the  school  by  the  homes, 
however,  far  outweigh  the  added  requirements  placed 
on  the  teacher.  Work  of  this  nature  can  be  instituted  in 
almost  any  rural  school  in  the  United  States,  providing 
the  teacher  is  fully  prepared  for  his  part  in  the  project, 
and  enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  work  with  enthusiasm  and 
tact.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  such  a  plan  would  be 
worse  than  a  failure  where  the  teacher  lacks  the  knowl- 
edge, interest  or  tact  requisite  for  so  delicate  an  under- 


I02  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

taking  as  to  supervise  work  done  by  the  child  at  his 
home,  and  credit  it  as  a  part  of  his  school  requirement. 

The  second  plan  differs  from  the  first  in  not  requir- 
ing oversight  of  the  home  work  by  the  school,  in  not 

--  .    ^  demanding:  reading  and  study  along 

Home  projects  °  ,    »    •  •   j 

without  super-  the  Ime  of  home  work  bemg  earned 

^*^*°^  out,  and  in  allowing  a  perfectly  free 

range  of  choice  of  the  home  work  to  be  done.  The  aim 
under  this  plan  is  to  encourage  the  pupil  to  help  in  the 
regular  work,  doing  his  part  faithfully  and  well.  There 
is  no  direct  attempt  to  make  the  work  educative,  except 
as  all  work  well  performed  is  educative,  or  as  the  child 
may  receive  instruction  from  the  parent.  Hence  no  at- 
tempt is  made  to  correlate  the  home  work  with  the  work 
of  the  school.  The  parents  are  given  the  responsibility 
of  judging  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  work  done, 
and  must  report  their  judgment  to  the  teacher,  who  as- 
signs proper  credit  to  the  pupil  toward  completing  his 
course  in  the  school. 

This  plan  is  in  successful  operation  in  many  sections 
throughout  the  United  States,  but  has  been  more  fully 

_,     _  ,  developed  and  followed  in  the  state 

The  Oregon  plan  r    /^  ,  it  r- 

of    Oregon    than    elsewhere.      State 

Superintendent  L.  R.  Alderman  says  of  the  project: 
"The  plan  costs  no  money,  will  take  but  little  school  time, 
and  can  be  put  into  operation  in  every  part  of  the  state 
at  onc«.  It  will  create  a  demand  for  expert  instruction 
later  on.  It  is  to  give  school-credit  for  industrial  work 
done  at  home.  The  mother  and  father  are  to  be  recog- 
nized as  teachers,  atFx  the  school-teacher  put  into  the 
position  of  one  who  cares  about  the  habits  and  tastes  of 
the  whole  child.  Then  the  teacher  and  the  parents  will 
have  much  in  common." 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  103 

Among  the  home  duties  for  which  school  credit  is  given 

to  boys  on  the  report  of  the  parent  are:    Building  the 

_    .        .  .,      morning  fires,  feeding  stock,  milkine, 

Rating  the  pupil        t       •        u  •        r  u 

cleanmg   horses,   carmg   for  poultry, 

providing  fuel.  Credit  work  for  girls  includes  sweeping, 
dusting,  washing  dishes,  serving  or  setting  the  table, 
bread  or  cake  making,  sewing  and  ironing.  Other  sub- 
jects may  be  added  by  the  parents  if  the  work  is  regularly 
done  by  the  pupil.  In  rating  the  pupil  for  the  term  or 
year,  the  industrial  work  carried  on  in  the  home  is  usually 
counted  the  equivalent  of  one  subject  pursued  by  the  pupil 
in  school,  and  credit  is  given  on  this  basis. 
'  Perhaps  the  most  important  factor  recently  introduced 
into  rural  vocational  education  is  the  agricultural  club 
The  "agricultural  movement,  which  is  becoming  more 
club"  movement  closely  affiliated  with  the  work  of  the 
rural  schools  every  year.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  club  work 
will  become  a  definite  part  of  the  school  program  in 
thousands  of  rural  schools  within  the  next  few  years. 
The  growth  of  agricultural  clubs  throughout  the  United 
States  has  been  more  rapid  during  the  last  year  than  at 
any  former  time,  and  the  promise  for  the  future  is  even 
more  encouraging. 

The  first  agricultural  clubs  were  those  established  some 
sixteen  years  ago  in  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Iowa  and 
other  middle  western  states.  These  were  not  definitely 
connected  with  the  schools,  and  existed  as  district,  county 
or  state  clubs,  usually  organized  under  the  auspices  of  a 
state  agricultural  college.  The  national  club  organization 
began  in  1907  in  Mississippi,  under  W.  H.  Smith,  now 
state  supervisor  of  rural  schools  of  that  state.  The  first 
clubs  organized  were  corn  clubs  for  boys  ten  to  eighteen 
-years  of  age.    They  enrolled  one  hundred  and  sixty-two 


104  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

members  the  first  year.  This  number  had  grown  to 
one  hundred  thousand  boys  in  corn  clubs  in  the  southern 
states  in  19 12.  Girls'  garden  and  canning  clubs  were 
first  organized  in  1910  in  South  Carolina  and  Virginia. 
There  were  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  girls  enrolled 
the  first  year,  the  number  increasing  to  thirty  thousand 
in  1912.  In  addition  to  the  corn  and  garden  clubs  in  the 
South,  cotton  clubs,  potato  clubs,  poultry  clubs,  etc.,  have 
also  been  established  and  are  rapidly  growing. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  now 
definitely  taken  up  boys'  and  girls'  club  work  as  one  of 
Department  of  ag-  i^s  activities,  and  almost  a  million  dol- 
riculture  and  clubs  lars  a  year  is  being  spent  to  promote 
agricultural  education  through  this  agency.  Club  work, 
so  successful  in  the  South,  has  been  extended  into  the 
northern  states.  Sixteen  states  are  now  organized  for 
national  club  work  in  cooperation  with  the  Office  of 
Farm  Management  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  work  of  the  club  is  usually  initiated  through  the 
schools,  and  is  being  made  a  definite  part  of  the  school 
program  in  many  places.  Special  instructions  are  fur- 
nished all  members  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the 
work,  lectures  are  given  under  the  auspices  of  the  club  by 
agricultural  experts,  contests  are  held  and  prizes  awarded. 

The  national  club  organization  under  the  direction  of 
O.  H.  Benson,  specialist  in  charge,  is  at  present  affiliating 
with  it  the  various  state  and  local  clubs,  and  the  movement 
will  be  extended  until  it  has  embraced  every  state.  There 
are  already  some  sixty  specialists  and  agents  now  giving 
all  or  the  greater  portion  of  their  time  to  this  work.  The 
cooperation  of  rural  schools  is  everywhere  being  sought 
and  encouraged,  and  valuable  assistance  rendered  to  make 
the  work  a  success  as  a  part  of  rural  education. 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING 


105 


Boys  and  girls  in  all  parts  of  the  country  have  re- 
sponded enthusiastically  to  the  club  idea,  and  have  shown 
Success  of  the  marvelous  results  from  their  experi- 

olub  movement  ments  and  work.    In  states  where  the 

average  yield  of  corn  on  the  farm  is  from  twenty  to  forty 
bushels  the  corn  clubs  have  succeeded  in  producing  from 
seventy-five  to  over  two  hundred  bushels  from  an  acre. 
Garden  clubs,  chicken  clubs,  canning  clubs,  cotton  clubs 
and  various  other  kinds  of  clubs  have  shown  the  same 
enterprise  and  ability  to  produce  results  through  the  use 
of  the  better  methods  learned  in  connection  with  the  club 
work. 

The  following  table  shows  the  list  of  prize  winners  in 
the  corn  club  of  the  northern  and  western  states  for  191 2, 
with  the  results  obtained  from  one 
acre  of  ground.  Each  of  the  boys  was 
given  a  free  trip  to  Washington  as  a  prize,  the  expenses 
being  paid  by  various  interested  individuals,  bankers'  as- 
sociations, chambers  of  commerce,  congressmen,  senators 
and  others : 


Club  prize  winners 


State 


Name 


Address 


Yield 
Bushels 


Cost  Per 
Bushel 


Maryland 

Kentucky  

Iowa 

West  Virginia. 
Massachusetts 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 

Illinois 


Leroy  Nichols .. 
Lester  Bryant .. 

EarlZeller 

Ethan  Allen 

Ernest  Russell . 
Hosea  Cornwell. 
Herman  Rucker 
Ivan  Houser.. ,. 

Leon  Kelley 

Wm.  Southward, 

Leo  Miller , 

Robert'Reeder.. 

Ivan  Goble , 

Glen  H.  Gordon 
Robert  Michael. 
Bert  Waggoner. 

iohn  S.  Lane 
iaiph  Wooters. 
Wilson  Francis. 
Wilbur  Corbin.. 
James  P.  Brown 


Highland  .... 

Rockfield 

Cooper 

Morgantown. 
South  Hadley 

Newman 

Decatur , 

Farmer  City. 
Monticello.... 
Kinmundy.... 
Springfield..., 

Mendota 

Charleston 

Urbana 

Assumption.., 

Gays 

Lacon , 

Moweaqua.... 

McNabb , 

Wheeler 

Raymond 


150.00 
148.55 
141-45 
140.20 
68.90 
150.45 
145.41 
122.60 
119.2s 
117.75 
112.48 
III. 50 
108.59 
107.50 
106.11 
105.80 
100.40 
96.97 
94.50 
82.00 
59-00 


$  .1333 
.1275 
.0975 
.2500 
.7000 
.2940 

.1241 
.3000 


.2030 
.2265 

.1233 
.2689 
.2288 


io6 


BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 


The  results  for  19 12  from  the  twelve  southern  states 
whose  club  work  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Office  of 
Farmers'  Cooperative  Demonstration  Work  is  even  better 
than  the  showing  for  the  northern  and  western  states: 


State 

Name 

Address 

Yield 
Bushels 

Cost  Per 
-Bushel 

South  Carolina 

Ernest  Joye 

207.18 
206.60 
198.25 
196.27 

184! 
I67. 

Ill 
134.20 
131.50 
129.29 
122.50 
117.67 
loi.cS 
83. 

$  .400 

:!§ 

.103 
.135 
.190 
.225 

Mississippi 

Alabama 

Carious  Reddock 

Willie  Atchison 

J.  P.  Deach 

Summerland 

McCalla 

Alabama 

Union  Grove 

Zeigler 

Georgia 

North  Carolina 

Byron  Bolton 

George  E.  West 

Frank  Brockman 

Herbert  McKibbon... 

Walter  Bridges 

Lester  Carrard 

John  M.Cobb 

RichardMiller 

Earle  Davis 

Kinston..... 

Virginia 

Amherst 

Tennessee 

CuUeoka 

Georgia 

Dawson 

.3125 

Arkansas 

Magnolia 

Louisiana 

Florida 

Vowrells  Mill 

Baker 

1^ 

Texas  

Grapeland 

.094 

Robert  Connally 

Elston  Coleman 

Herbert  Allen 

Newkirk 

North  Carolina 

Pungo 

.14a 

If  all  the  farm  boys  now  in  rural  schools  could  be  in- 
terested in  club  and  home  project  work,  thus  get- 
Possibilities  in  ag-  ting  the  information  and  developing 
ricultural  work  the  standards  of  farming  required  of 

members  of  the  present  clubs,  the  resultant  increase  in 
agricultural  wealth  in  the  nation  would  be  almost  beyond 
computation.  The  productivity  of  the  soil  would  be  far 
more  than  doubled  and  its  natural  strength  would  be 
much  better  conserved  than  under  present  conditions. 
And  corresponding  results  are  possible  in  the  breeding  and 
raising  of  stock,  in  the  care  and  use  of  improved  farm 
machinery,  in  the  planning  and  erection  of  farm  build- 
ings, including  farmhouses,  and  in  all  that  goes  to  make 
farming  a  profitable  and  worthy  career. 

Let  the  rural  school  show  its  value  by  making  an  im- 
mediate and  practical  contribution  to  the  welfare  and 
Reflex  influence  success  of  its  community,  and  there 
upon  schools  will  be  no  lack  of  financial  or  moral 


Lester  Bryant,  champion  boy  corn  grower  of  Ken- 
tucky (1912).  He  grew  148  bushels  and  55  pounds 
of    corn    on    his    one    acre 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  107 

support  on  the  part  of  its  patrons.  Rural  schools  that 
have  earnestly  and  effectively  taken  up  vocational  train- 
ing have  uniformly  found  ready  cooperation  and  enthusi- 
astic appreciation.  Schoolhouses  have  been  improved  or 
new  ones  erected,  apparatus  and  other  equipment  have 
been  supplied,  and  teachers'  salaries  have  been  increased 
as  an  evidence  of  awakened  public  interest  in  practical 
education.  One  Illinois  rural  district  paid  the  teacher  one 
hundred  and  ten  dollars  a  month,  nine  hundred  and  ninety 
dollars  a  year,  in  191 3,  for  teaching  a  one-room  school 
in  which  the  vocational  ideal  dominates ;  and  many  other 
districts  in  widely  scattered  regions  are  offering  teachers 
who  are  capable  of  successfully  introducing  vocational 
subjects  fully  fifty  per  cent,  more  salary  than  the  average 
for  their  vicinity. 

Nor  does  the  vocational  rural  school  lose  its  grip  on 
its  pupils,  as  is  the  case  with  the  old  type  of  school,  and 
Influence  upon  allow  them  to   drift  into  their  life- 

P"P^^^  work  without  preparation,  and  defi- 

cient in  education.  One  of  the  most  marked  results  of 
introducing  vocational  studies  into  the  school  has  been 
larger  enrollment  and  more  regular  attendance  and 
greatly  increased  interest.  The  actual  attendance  in  the 
modernized  school  is  not  infrequently  doubled  and  oc- 
casionally trebled  as  compared  with  the  former  school. 
Not  only  do  boys  and  girls  who  ordinarily  would  drop 
out  of  school  at  the  third,  fourth  or  fifth  grade  con- 
tinue to  the  end  of  the  elementary  course,  but  many  of 
them  are  later  found  in  the  high  school.  Especially  is 
this  true  where  the  high  school  also  offers  the  vocational 
subjects. 

The  experience  of  Superintendent  Kate  R.  Logan,  of 
Cherokee    County,    Iowa,    forcefully    demonstrates    the 


io8  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

power  of  a  rural  school  of  practical  type  to  attract  the 
young  people  of  the  farm.  In  traveling  up  and  down 
Response  to  "spe-  her  county,  Miss  Logan  noted  many 
cial"  schools  boys  and  girls  from  fifteen  to  twenty 

years  of  age  who  were  not  in  school,  and  who  possessed 
but  a  meager  education.  These  were  the  boys  and  girls 
who  had  dropped  out  from  the  district  school,  lost  step 
educationally  with  those  of  their  age,  and  now  felt  that 
the  school  had  nothing  for  them.  Miss  Logan  presented 
the  case  of  these  young  people  to  her  township  school 
boards  all  over  the  county.  As  a  result,  a  number  of 
"special"  schools  were  established,  two  of  them  in  new 
buildings,  to  provide  for  this  class  of  students.  These 
schools  open  in  the  early  autumn,  and  run  until  late 
spring.  They  employ  the  best  teachers  available.  The 
course  of  study  includes  a  review  of  the  "three  R's,"  agri- 
culture, manual  training,  domestic  science,  music,  history, 
civics,  literature,  etc.  The  instruction  is  as  concrete  and 
inspiring  as  it  can  be  made  and  is  directly  connected  with 
the  life  of  the  pupils  wherever  possible. 

Needless  to  say,  these  "special"  schools  have  been  a 
success.  They  have  been  so  great  a  success  as  almost  to 
embarrass  the  school  officials  by  the  number  who  sought 
admission.  For  boys  and  girls  have  come  from  far  and 
near  to  the  schools,  walking  where  possible,  and  supply- 
ing their  own  conveyances  where  the  distance  was  great. 
The  attendance  has  been  regular;  the  work  has  been 
thorough  and  effective ;  the  spirit  of  loyalty  and  enthusi- 
asm in  the  school  has  been  noteworthy.  A  number  of 
young  men  from  these  "special"  schools  have  now  gone 
to  agricultural  colleges,  and  others  of  both  sexes  are 
planning  to  continue  their  education  in  high  schools  and 
colleges. 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  109 

It  is  not  likely  that  "special"  schools,  like  those  set  up 
by  Miss  Logan  will  be  widely  adopted.  They  ought  not 
All  rural  schools  to  be  necessary.  The  work  and  oppor- 
to  be  vocational  tunities  they  offer  ought  to  be  available 
in  every  rural  school.  Then  the  boys  and  girls  will  not 
drop  out  of  school  and  require  special  schools  in  which  to 
continue  their  education.  The  superintendent  and  people 
of  Cherokee  County  are  to  be  congratulated  on  their  wis- 
dom and  enterprise  in  providing  for  the  neglected  group 
of  their  youth  who  attend  these  special  schools.  But  the 
next  step  is  to  make  all  the  schools  of  their  county  "spe- 
cial" schools.  And  what  is  true  of  this  county  holds  for 
all  rural  schools  throughout  the  land;  their  work  must 
be  made  so  much  a  part  of  the  life-equipment  of  the  pu- 
pils that  their  appeal  will  be  irresistible  and  the  help  they 
render  invaluable — they  must  in  a  true  and  broad  sense 
be  made  vocational. 

Whatever  may  be  the  method  taken  by  the  individual 
school,  therefore,  to  work  out  its  problem,  we  may  con- 
Vocational  move-  c^^de  that  our  rural  schools  are  about 
ment  bound  to  to  enter  on  a  system  of  practical  vo- 

succeed  cational  training  for  the   farm  boys 

and  girls.  No  doubt  there  will  be  here  and  there  a  school, 
and  perhaps  here  and  there  a  whole  county,  where  in- 
dustrial education  will  for  a  time  be  looked  on  as  a  fad, 
or  as  impossible  in  the  smaller  type  of  schools.  No  doubt 
vocational  instruction  will  here  and  there  be  undertaken 
by  teachers  who  are  unprepared  in  either  knowledge  or 
sympathy  for  such  work,  and  harm  will  be  done  to  the 
movement  and  its  progress  delayed.  Yet  the  movement  is 
under  way,  and  its  success  is  but  a  question  of  time.  The 
logic  of  the  age  demands  that  the  rural  schools  shall  be 
made  vocational,  the  leadership  is  organizing  to  conduct 


no  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

a  nation-wide  campaign  for  such  a  result,  and  the  patrons 
of  the  schools  are  everywhere  loyal  supporters  of  a  vo- 
cational program  once  it  is  established.  It  is  inevitable 
that  our  rural  schools  shall  come  to  supply  vocational 
training  for  the  farm. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  It  has  been  conceded  for  generations  that  training 
must  be  supplied  by  the  state  for  those  who  are  to  enter 
professional  pursuits.  Should  not  the  state  likewise 
provide  training  for  those  who  are  to  enter  industrial 
pursuits  ? 

2.  Suppose  it  would  cost  your  state  two  million  dollars 
a  year  more  than  it  now  pays  for  its  schools  to  introduce 
vocational  training  into  its  rural  schools ;  also  suppose  as 
a  result  of  such  studies  taught  in  the  schools  the  yield  of 
corn  is  increased  by  five  bushels  to  the  acre  (which 
would  be  easily  possible).  How  would  the  state  come  out 
financially  on  the  investment? 

3.  A  great  many  rural  school-teachers  are  graduates 
of  town  high  schools  and  have  never  lived  on  a  farm. 
The  majority  of  them  are  girls.  Can  these  teachers  hope 
to  make  efficient  instructors  in  the  vocational  subjects? 
If  so,  how  must  they  prepare? 

4.  Has  your  school  made  any  preparation  for  teaching 
agriculture?  If  so,  is  the  equipment  of  it  adequate?  If 
no  provision  has  yet  been  made  would  you  know  just 
where  to  begin,  and  what  to  do  in  furthering  the  project  ? 

5.  In  some  localities  the  farmers  have  little  faith  in  the 
agriculture  taught  in  the  schools.  Can  you  suggest  meth- 
ods by  which  this  indifference  or  antagonism  can  be  over- 
come? 

6.  What  "home  projects"  for  boys  would  you  find  it 
possible  to  introduce  into  your  school  work?  For  girls? 
Do  you  foresee  that  an  untactful  teacher  might  defeat  all 


VOCATIONAL   TRAINING  in 

such  plans  for  work  by  failing  to  gain  the  cooperation  of 
parents  ? 

7.  Do  you  think  that  school  gardens  could  be  made  a 
success  in  connection  with  your  school  (i)  for  teaching 
nature  study  and  agriculture ;  (2)  for  purposes  of  decora- 
tion ? 

8.  What  club  work  would  be  best  adapted  to  your 
school  conditions'?  Do  you  know  how  to  proceed  in  or- 
ganizing and  conducting  a  corn  club?  A  canning  club? 
If  not,  do  you  know  where  to  write  for  instructions  (ask 
your  superintendent)  ? 


PART  III 

THE  TEACHER  AND  THE 
RURAL  SCHOOL 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  TEACHER 

The  chief  factor  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  rural 
school  is,  after  all,  the  teacher.  For  on  the  teacher  all  the 
rest  depends.  No  matter  how  perfect  the  curriculum,  or 
how  excellent  the  buildings  and  equipment,  these  things 
all  go  for  naught  except  as  they  are  employed  by  de- 
voted, inspiring  and  efficient  teachers.  More  than  this, 
the  teacher  is  the  most  potent  influence  in  awakening 
interest,  shaping  public  sentiment  and  winning  from  the 
patrons  of  the  rural  schools  the  support  necessary  for  the 
success  of  the  new  movement.  The  key  to  educational 
progress  is  largely  in  the  teachers'  hands.  It  is  only  as 
they  comprehend  the  situation  and  lend  their  support  to 
the  new  ideals  that  results  will  be  possible.  If  the  teachers 
are  able  to  enter  enthusiastically  into  the  spirit  of  the 
new  movement,  if  they  are  willing  to  prepare  themselves 
fully  for  leadership  in  their  communities ;  and  if  they  are 
ready  to  devote  their  best  powers  to  the  school  and  the 
community,  then  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  successful 
outcome  of  the  reforms  now  taking  shape  in  the  rural 
schools. 

But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  teachers  should  fail  to 
catch  the  spirit  of  the  new  movement,  to  comprehend  its 
Power  to  hinder  or  significance,  or  to  prepare  themselves 
promote  progress  to  be  its  exponents,  then  the  movement 
could  not  succeed.    For  it  is  the  teacher  who  comes  into 

115 


ii6  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

immediate  contact  with  the  patrons  of  the  schools. 
County  superintendents  may  be  ever  so  efficient  and  have 
their  plans  ever  so  well  laid,  but  it  must  finally  be  the 
rural  teacher  who  carries  these  plans  into  execution. 
School  boards  may  be  ever  so  loyal  to  the  educational 
interests  of  their  districts  and  desirous  of  offering  the 
children  the  best  opportunities  available,  but  they  need 
the  inspiration  and  guidance  that  alone  can  come  from  a 
thoroughly  informed  and  highly  enthusiastic  leader  such 
as  the  rural  teacher  must  be  under  the  new  order. 

The  teacher  must  be  the  concrete  embodiment  of  the 
educational  ideal.  It  is  for  him  to  reveal  the  new  mean- 
The  teacher  must  ^"?  ^^  education— to  show  how  educa- 
embody  educa-  tion  can  be  made  the  instrument  of 

tional  Ideal  efficiency  and  success  in  the  life  and 

work  of  the  farm.  It  lies  with  him  to  attract  the  rural 
boys  and  girls  to  the  school  and  by  his  effective  teaching 
hold  them  there  until  they  complete  the  course  it  offers. 
The  teacher  must  be  the  source  of  inspiration  and  enthusi- 
asm capable  of  leading  the  pupils  to  desire  an  education 
because  they  see  its  advantages.  The  rural  teacher  occu- 
pies a  strategic  position  in  the  greatest  educational  move- 
ment of  modern  times, — the  movement  to  bring  the  rural 
schools  up  to  the  degree  of  efficiency  necessary  if  the 
life  and  standards  of  our  rural  communities  are  not  to 
deteriorate.  This  is  a  great  responsibility  and  at  the  same 
time  a  magnificent  opportunity. 

The  spirit  which  the  rural  teacher  brings  to  his  work 
becomes,  therefore,  an  all-important  matter.  For  the  at- 
The  spirit  of  the  titude  with  which  one  confronts  one's 
teacher  task  is  the  first  measure  of  his  suc- 

cess. Battles  have  often  been  won  against  great 
odds   through   an   invincible   spirit   of    loyalty   and   de- 


THE    SPIRIT    OF   THE    TEACHER         117 

votion  on  the  part  of  the  soldiers ;  and  battles  have 
as  often  been  lost  because  devotion  and  loyalty  were 
lacking.  Half-hearted  service  always  fails  of  its 
purpose,  for  it  never  calls  forth  the  full  powers  of  him 
who  serves,  nor  the  full  response  and  appreciation  of 
those  who  receive  the  service.  The  indifferent  or  spirit- 
less teacher  would  do  well  to  remember  Emerson's  re- 
mark, that  "Nothing  great  was  ever  achieved  without 
enthusiasm."  Nor  is  anything  worthy  ever  accomplished 
without  sincerity  of  purpose.  A  great  work  greatly  per- 
formed reflects  its  greatness  on  the  worker ;  but  it  dwarfs 
him  who  slights  it  or  uses  it  as  a  plaything.  A  spirit  of 
cooperation  begets  its  kind,  but  an  attitude  of  selfishness 
or  indifference  is  fatal  to  community  of  interests  or 
efforts.  The  teacher  must  give  what  he  expects  to  get 
back.  He  will  find  that  the  world  is  a  great  mirror  which 
returns  to  him  the  image  he  brings  to  it. 

How,  then,  shall  the  rural  teacher  look  on  his  work? 
Is  it  to  him  an  opportunity  or  an  imposition?  Is  the 
school  simply  a  place  where  so  many  school-days  of  so 
many  hours  each  can  be  traded  for  a  given  number  of  pay 
checks?  Or  is  it  an  opportunity  for  investing  the  best 
powers  of  his  mind  and  heart  in  the  lives  and  welfare  of 
those  with  whom  he  works?  The  pay? — Ah,  yes,  the 
teacher  must  have  his  pay.  Would  that  it  were  twice 
what  it  is !  But,  having  once  arranged  the  matter  of  the 
pay,  that  need  not  again  enter  into  his  reckoning.  The 
true  teacher  will  feel  his  best  powers  placed  under  tribute 
by  the  need  and  the  opportunity  that  confront  him,  and 
will  not  measure  the  service  he  renders,  nor  in  any  degree 
check  it  up  in  a  balance  against  dollars  and  cents. 

One  rural  teacher  was  taught  this  lesson  by  a  school 
director  to  whom  he  applied  for  a  school.    The  board  had 


Ii8  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

fixed  the  salary  at  the  pitiful  sum  of  thirty  dollars  a 
month  for  a  term  of  three  months.  The  teacher  remon- 
A  teacher  with  the  strated  at  the  meagerness  of  the  sal- 
wrong  attitude  ary,  but  the  director  replied  that, 
though  he  was  sorry  it  was  not  more,  yet  this  was  the 
amount  decided  on  by  the  board,  and  was  therefore  all  he 
could  offer.  The  teacher  finally  said,  "I  will  accept  the 
school  at  thirty  dollars  a  month,  but  I  warn  you  now  that 
I  shall  not  teach  so  good  a  school  for  thirty  dollars  as  I 
would  for  forty  dollars  a  month."  The  farmer  looked  at 
him  a  moment  in  astonishment  and  then  administered  a 
well-merited  rebuke:  "Sir,  you  are  lacking  in  the  true 
spirit  of  the  teacher;  you  could  not  have  this  school  at 
any  price!" 

Only  as  personal  hand-to-hand  work  by  sincere  teach- 
ers is  done  in  the  rural  communities  will  the  new  spirit  in 
Results  accom-  education  permeate  the  patronage  of 

plished  by  a  de-  the  rural  schools  and  finally  serve  to 
voted  teacher  reconstruct  their  attitude  toward  the 

school.  The  influence  that  may  be  exerted  by  an  en- 
thusiastic and  capable  rural  teacher  is  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  one  girl  in  a  western  state  who  entered  a  rural 
community  in  which  the  school  spirit  and  standards  were 
low,  the  building  unsuitable  and  out  of  repair,  and  equip- 
ment almost  wholly  lacking.  This  teacher  set  resolutely 
at  work  to  remedy  these  conditions.  She  gave  herself 
completely  to  her  work,  and  became  in  a  true  sense  one  of 
the  community.  Within  three  years  she  had  revolution- 
ized educational  affairs  in  this  district,  being  responsible 
for  the  erection  of  a  modern  school  building  with  the 
latest  and  most  sanitary  equipment,  and  with  apparatus 
and  supplies  wholly  adequate  for  the  needs  of  the  dis- 
trict.   She  had  more  than  doubled  the  attendance  of  the 


THE    SPIRIT    OF   THE   TEACHER        119 

school,  had  had  her  own  pay  largely  increased,  and  had 
made  the  school  the  central  feature  both  intellectually  and 
socially  in  this  community.  What  was  accomplished  by 
this  one  rural  teacher  can  be  accomplished  by  others  if 
they  but  possess  the  right  spirit  and  equipment  for  their 
work.  Indeed  just  such  work  as  this  is  being  accom- 
plished by  thousands  of  teachers  in  our  rural  schools. 

The  rural  school  has  long  been  looked  on  as  the  lowest 
and  most  unattractive  teaching  position  in  our  whole 
Difficult  problems  school  system.  Here  most  of  us  had 
to  be  met  to   begin,   young,   inexperienced   and 

relatively  unprepared  for  our  work.  The  school  is  usually 
small  in  numbers,  the  pupils  are  poorly  classified,  the 
building  is  diminutive  and  uninviting,  and  the  equipment 
insufficient.  The  salary  is  inadequate,  the  school  spirit 
at  a  low  ebb,  and  all  conditions  are  less  inviting  than  in 
the  town  or  city  school.  The  rural  school  has  frequently 
been  viewed  by  men  as  a  stepping-stone  to  better  posi- 
tions, and  by  girls  as  a  convenient  opportunity  to  earn 
a  little  money  against  the  expenses  of  approaching  mar- 
riage. It  has  too  often  been  considered  as  a  place  of  mere 
drudgery,  a  position  to  be  endured  if  it  could  not  be 
escaped. 

Yet  the  very  difficulty  and  hardness  of  the  adverse  con- 
ditions constitute  a  challenge  to  the  heroic  element  in 
Meeting  the  dare  choice  natures.  The  obstacles  act  as  a 
of  hard  conditions  dare  to  the  spirit  of  conquest  inherent 
in  youth.  They  call  for  sacrifice,  yet  offer  the  opportunity 
for  the  testing  of  one's  powers  and  for  the  winning  of 
hard-earned  victories.  Man  at  his  best  is  not  afraid  of 
hardship,  and  does  not  look  for  an  easy  task.  The  spirit 
of  conflict  deeply  rooted  in  human  nature,  and  the  impulse 
to  try  to  the  utmost  all  our  powers,  prompt  us  to  measure 


120  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

our  strength  against  difficulties  that  appear  all  but  insu- 
perable. It  is  this  spirit  that  explains  the  measure  of  suc- 
cess that  has  attended  our  rural  schools  even  under  such 
discouraging  conditions.  That  the  rural  school  has  proved 
as  efficient  as  it  has,  is  a  high  testimony  to  the  intelligence 
and  resourcefulness  of  our  young  men  and  women  who 
have  begun  their  careers  as  rural  school-teachers. 

Only  the  teacher  who  is  willing  to  accept  the  dare  of 
hard  and  trying  work  has  any  business  in  the  rural  school. 

Rural  school  no  ^^  '^  "°  P^^^^  ^°^  ^^^  ^^^^^'^  «^  ^^^ 
place  for  half-  weak-hearted,  or  for  one  who  is  not 

hearted  work  willing  to  lose  himself  completely  in 

his  work ;  for  to  him  it  will  mean  but  time-serving  and  in- 
efficiency. One  such  teacher,  entering  on  a  two  months' 
term,  said  at  the  close  of  the  first  day  of  school,  "Only 
thirty-nine  more  days  left !"  And  so  he  kept  on  checking 
the  days  off  until  the  end  of  the  term  released  him  from 
his  slavery.  For  no  work  followed  in  such  a  spirit  as  this 
can  be  other  than  slavery  to  the  worker.  Another,  a  girl 
just  graduated  from  a  high  school  and  a  resident  of  a 
town,  when  asked  how  she  liked  her  country  school,  said : 
"Oh,  if  I  can  go  out  to  my  school  each  week  on  Monday 
morning  just  in  time  for  school,  have  a  chance  to  get 
back  to  town  once  or  twice  during  the  week,  and  always 
escape  in  time  to  be  at  home  for  supper  on  Friday  night, 
I  think  I  can  stand  it." 

There  is  no  possibility  of  high-grade  success  with  such 
an  attitude  as  this  toward  one's  work;  for  interest  and 
J,        .        ,  enthusiasm     are     lacking,     and     the 

whole-hearted  choicest    powers   of   both   mind    and 

service  heart  lag  far  below  their  best.     The 

teacher  of  the  rural  school,  even  though  reared  in  the 
town  or  city,  must  be  able  to  identify  himself  fully  with 


THE    SPIRIT    OF    THE    TEACHER        121 

the  life  and  interests  of  the  rural  community  in  which  he 
works.  He  can  not  come  into  the  country  community  as 
a  foreigner,  and  do  his  best  work.  He  must  be  fully 
naturalized  to  the  conditions  and  the  people  in  his  sphere 
of  work.  Nor  can  this  be  any  half-hearted  or  profes- 
sional identification  of  himself  with  the  farming  commu- 
nity. He  must  go  the  whole  distance,  and  really  come  to 
take  a  deep  and  permanent  interest  in  the  people  and  their 
life. 

The  career  of  a  young  man — ^David  Hammond — teach- 
ing in  a  western  rural  school  well  illustrates  this  fine 
What  enthusiasm  spirit  of  service.  David  graduated 
can  accomplish  from  a  town  high  school  where  he  had 

an  opportunity  to  study  a  course  in  agriculture  and  learn 
manual  training.  He  then  attended  a  normal  school  for 
a  year,  studying  especially  the  problems  of  rural  educa- 
tion. He  spent  the  next  summer  on  a  farm.  The  follow- 
ing September,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  became  teacher 
of  a  rural  school  noted  only  for  its  meager  attendance  and 
lack  of  vitality.  But  here  was  David  Hammond's  oppor- 
tunity. He  was  not  looking  for  an  easy  place ;  he  wanted 
to  try  what  he  could  do.  He  became  so  completely  one  of 
the  community  that  they  laughingly  said  they  had  adopted 
him.  At  least  they  raised  his  salary,  and  the  second  year 
he  was  drawing  sixty  dollars  a  month.  Better  still,  the 
school  had  undergone  a  marvelous  change.  The  house 
was  now  in  repair,  equipment  was  plentiful,  and  a  happy 
throng  of  children  double  in  number  those  he  found  when 
he  began  the  school  were  coming  regularly.  But  other 
districts  had  heard  of  David  Hammond's  success;  such 
fame  is  sure  to  spread.  David  was  offered  ninety  dollars 
a  month  in  another  school,  an  increase  of  one-half  in  his 
salary.    David's  old  district  could  not  afford  to  pay  more 


122  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

than  sixty.  But  David  stayed.  He  said  that  there  were 
still  many  things  he  wanted  to  do  for  that  district  before 
he  left.  And  he  is  there  carrying  out  his  plans.  Some 
may  scoff  at  David's  choice.  But  the  world  is  on  the 
lookout  for  men  who  are  great  enough  to  make  such 
choices,  and  some  day  David  Hammond  will  be  wanted  to 
fill  a  position  of  large  responsibility  to  which  the  scoffer 
could  never  aspire. 

The  teacher  who  has  a  tendency  to  feel  that  his  time 
and  powers  are  in  some  sense  wasted  6r  poorly  employed 
The  teacher  who  ^^^"  expended  on  the  backward 
feels  above  his  and  plainly  clad  children  of  the  farms 

^°  should  either  change  his  attitude  or 

his  occupation.  For  these  children  are  not  to  be  slighted 
or  patronized.  They  are  at  least  the  equals  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  towns  and  cities  when  given  an  equal  chance. 
And  the  true  teacher  will  feel  that  here  is  the  most  fruit- 
ful ground  in  which  to  sow  the  seeds  of  helpfulness  and 
influence.  If  the  teacher  is  worthy  to  stand  at  the  head  of 
a  school,  this  school,  though  small  and  poorly  housed, 
will  command  the  last  measure  of  his  energy  and  effort. 
It  will  call  forth  the  finest  of  his  powers,  and  receive  his 
richest  sympathy  and  helpfulness. 

This  is  to  say  that  the  teacher,  and  particularly  the 
rural  teacher  of  the  present  day,  should  be  equipped  with 
An  example  of  3-    passion    for    helpfulness — an    un- 

helpfulness  quenchable  impulse  to  service.    Domi- 

nant in  his  life  should  be  the  spirit  of  sympathy  which 
actuated  the  teacher  in  the  following  incident:  Annola 
Wright  was  a  teacher  of  music.  She  has  since  become  a 
noted  singer  in  a  great  city.  While  she  was  still  a  teacher 
in  the  school  of  a  Michigan  town  she  had  developed  a 
beautiful  voice,  and  people  loved  to  hear  her  sing.    But 


THE    SPIRIT   OF   THE   TEACHER        123 

they  admired  Miss  Wright  fully  as  much  for  herself  as 
for  her  voice.  For  she  was  buoyantly  happy  in  her  work, 
and  radiated  cheer  and  helpfulness  to  all  about  her.  Miss 
Wright's  fame  as  a  singer  grew,  and  she  was  asked  many 
times  to  sing  at  social  gatherings  and  entertainments. 
These  invitations  became  so  frequent  and  her  work  as  a 
teacher  was  so  heavy  that  she  was  obliged  to  decline  many 
requests  to  sing.  But  there  was  one  place  where  she 
never  failed  to  go  and  sing  each  week.  This  was  the 
home  of  a  boy  who  had  been  a  pupil  in  the  school,  but 
was  now  crippled  and  helpless.  His  mother  was  a  widow 
and  washed  to  support  her  home.  The  boy  could  no 
longer  go  to  school  to  hear  Miss  Wright  sing,  so  she  came 
and  sang  her  most  beautiful  songs  to  him.  One  day  the 
crippled  boy  sickened  of  a  contagious  disease,  and  the 
house  was  quarantined.  Miss  Wright  came  and  stood 
outside  the  fence  and  sang  to  the  sick  boy  as  he  smiled  out 
of  the  window.  She  came  each  day  until  he  died.  Be- 
cause of  the  contagious  disease  there  could  be  no  funeral 
service.  But  on  the  day  when  they  were  to  carry  the 
body  of  the  boy  from  the  house,  Miss  Wright  came  again 
and  standing  by  the  gate,  sang  for  his  funeral  the  old 
songs  the  boy  had  loved. 

Soon  after  this  Miss  Wright  resigned  her  position  as 
teacher  of  music  and  went  to  the  city  to  study.  Success 
The  reward  of  came  to  her,  and  her  old  friends  in  the 

helpfulness  Michigan  town   desired  to  hear  her 

sing  again.  They  were  proud  of  her  success.  They  sent 
her  an  invitation  to  give  a  concert  in  the  town.  Seats 
were  sold  at  city  prices  and  the  concert  hall  was  crowded. 
When  Miss  Wright  came  before  the  audience  to  sing, 
the  people  wondered  at  a  little  pause  before  she  began, 
and  a  strange  note  of  emotion  in  her  voice  in  the  first 


124  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

song.  They  did  not  know  that  this  was  caused  by  seeing 
the  mother  of  the  crippled  boy,  who  earned  her  Hving  by 
washing,  occupying  one  of  the  seats,  that  she  might  show 
her  appreciation  of  Annola  Wright's  kindness  to  her  boy. 

The  teacher,  especially  the  one  who  comes  from  the  city 
high  school,  must  not  assume  that  because  the  patrons 
The  teacher's  atti-  ^"^  pupils  of  his  school  are  dressed 
tude  toward  his  in  working  clothes  they  are  therefore 
people  q£  ^  different  order  of  beings  from 

himself.  He  must  not  allow  himself  to  think  that  because 
they  work  with  their  hands  and  have  to  do  with  the  soil, 
their  vocation  is  of  a  lower  order  than  that  of  the  city 
worker  in  store  or  office  or  shop.  He  must  be  able  to 
sense  the  rugged  and  virile  manhood  and  the  strong 
womanhood  to  be  found  among  the  rural  people  and 
respond  to  it  with  the  best  that  is  within  himself. 

Not  to  be  able  to  approach  the  problems  and  oppor- 
tunities of  the  rural  school  in  this  spirit,  far  from  pro- 
claiming any  native  superiority  inherent  in  the  disdainful 
teacher,  only  proves  his  own  narrowness  and  provincial- 
ism. What  he  needs  first  of  all  is  to  broaden  his  own  out- 
look on  life,  and  to  increase  the  range  of  his  own  knowl- 
edge and  sympathies.  He  needs  to  look  beyond  the  small 
circle  of  his  few  acquaintances  or  intimates,  and  become 
able  to  meet  those  in  different  walks  of  life,  recognizing 
their  true  worth  and  acknowledging  their  contribution 
to  the  common  welfare.  He  needs  to  cultivate  in  himself 
an  appreciation  of  interests  and  values  hitherto  unknown 
to  him. 

The  true  teacher  will,  then,  enter  fully  and  completely 
into  his  work  in  the  rural  school,  and  will  withhold  noth- 
ing of  interest,  enthusiasm  or  effort  in  his  desire  to  be 
helpful  to  his  community.    If  he  is  from  the  town  or  city, 


THE   SPIRIT    OF   THE   TEACHER        125 

he  will  earnestly  seek  to  inform  himself  on  the  problems 

and    activities   of  the    rural   community.      He   will,    in 

sympathy  and  appreciation,  at  least,  become  a  farmer,  and 

will  become  able  to  think  and  feel  as  farmers  do.    He  will 

understand  the  children  of  the  farm,  and  will  bring  to 

them  many  things  that  will  brighten  and  enrich  their 

lives,  while  at  the  same  time  he  leads  their  ambitions  and 

inclinations  to  choose  the  farm  as  an  occupation.     Such 

a  teacher  will  never  hold  himself  aloof  from  or  above  his 

pupils  and  patrons,  but  will  expand  his  own  personality 

until  it  is  large  enough  to  include  them  all,  with  their 

interests  and  problems.     And  he  will  find  this  fully  as 

much  to  his  own  advantage  and  growth  as  to  theirs. 

The  teacher  of  the  rural  school  sometimes  feels  that 

because  the  school  is  small,  and  the  pupils  young  and 

.  ,      .  backward  in  their  studies,  the  work  is 

A  cure  tor  impa-  ' 

tience  with  the  therefore  less  worthy  than  in  higher 

humdrum  grades   and   larger   schools.     It  is   a 

tendency  common  to  human  nature  to  long  for  other  en- 
vironment and  conditions  than  those  in  which  we  work, 
and  to  think  that  if  we  could  only  occupy  the  position 
that  some  one  else  has,  we  should  be  much  happier  and 
more  successful.  Work  becomes  humdrum,  and  the  sur- 
roundings commonplace,  and  we  long  for  a  change. 
While  this  attitude  is  natural  enough,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  all  labor  becomes  routine,  and  must  do  so  before 
we  can  become  proficient  in  it.  It  is  only  the  teacher  who 
can  invest  the  common  duties  of  the  school-day  with  in- 
terest and  newness  who  can  escape  the  deadness  of 
routine.  While  the  lessons  may  be  familiar  and  the  sub- 
ject-matter old,  the  children  are  always  new,  the  human 
element  in  our  work  is  always  changing.  Each  child  is 
different  from  any  other,  and  every  one  worthy  the  genius 


126  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

and  devotion  of  a  Pestalozzi  in  his  teacher.    We  all  need 
to  learn  the  lesson  that  Sill  teaches  in  his  lines : 

"Forenoon,  and  afternoon,  and  night ; — Forenoon, 
And  afternoon,  and  night ;  Forenoon,  and — what  ? 
The  empty  song  repeats  itself.     No  more? 
Yea,  that  is  life ;  make  this  forenoon  sublime, 
This  afternoon  a  psalm,  and  this  night  a  prayer. 
And  time  is  conquered,  and  thy  crown  is  won." 

Still  further  is  it  to  be  remembered  that  the  elementary 
work  of  the  grades  is  not  the  least  important  work  of  the 
Elementary  grades  school.  It  is  often  thought  that  the 
the  most  important  high-school  teacher  is  engaged  in 
more  dignified  and  significant  teaching  because  it  is  more 
advanced.  Such  a  view  overlooks  the  fact  that  the  most 
important  years  of  the  child's  education  are  the  earliest 
years.  Before  the  child  goes  to  school  at  all  he  has  been 
learning  faster  than  he  ever  learns  afterward.  The  first 
years  of  his  schooling  are  more  important  by  far  than  the 
later  years.  If  a  child  is  compelled  to  have  a  poor  teacher 
anywhere  in  the  course  of  his  schooling,  far  better  that 
this  should  be  in  the  higher  grades  or  in  the  high  school 
than  in  the  first  years.  This  is  true  not  only  because  the 
first  years  set  the  standard  and  give  the  bent  for  the  later 
years,  but  also  because  the  teacher  plays  relatively  a  larger 
part  in  the  learning  of  the  child  when  he  first  goes  to 
school  than  after  he  has  fully  learned  to  use  books  as  a 
tool  in  his  education. 

It  is  high  time  that  all  teachers,  superintendents  and 
school  boards  come  to  realize  that  the  grades  of  the  ele- 
Best  ability  re-  mentary  school  require  quite  as  good 

quired  for  children    ability  and  as  complete  training  as  the 


THE   SPIRIT    OF   THE   TEACHER        127 

high  school,  and  that  the  pay  should  be  fully  as  great. 
The  failure  to  recognize  this  truth  has  come  from  the  mis- 
taken notion  that  the  difficult  and  important  thing  about 
teaching  is  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught.  Because  the 
subject-matter  of  the  lower  grades  is  simple,  it  has  been 
assumed  that  the  teaching  must  be  as  easy.  But  the  sub- 
ject-matter is  the  easy  part  in  any  grade  of  teaching.  Any 
one  can  learn  his  arithmetic,  geometry  or  history.  The 
really  difficult  faqtor  in  teaching  is  the  child;  and  the 
younger  child,  who  has  not  yet  learned  the  art  of  master- 
ing books,  and  who  still  lacks  the  foundations  on  which  to 
build  in  his  study,  is  the  hardest  problem  for  the  teacher 
to  master. 

The  rural  teacher  has  need  at  the  present  time  to  be  the 
most  devoted  and  progressive  of  any  class  of  American 
Demand  for  choice  teachers.  This  is  true  from  the  fact 
qualities  in  rural  that  the  needs  of  the  rural  schools  are 
teacher  j^g^  j^^^  ^j^^  j^^g^.  pj-ggsing  and  the 

opportunities  the  greatest  of  those  in  any  class  of  schools. 
The  rural  school  has  been  left  stranded  behind  all  others 
in  recent  educational  progress.  But  the  advance  is  begin- 
ning, and  reconstruction  is  rapidly  taking  place.  In  this 
advance,  the  rural  teacher  must  be  able  to  take  an  im- 
portant part, — must  be  able,  under  the  direction  of  county 
superintendents  and  other  administrative  officers,  to  as- 
sume leadership  in  carrying  out  lines  of  policy  for  the 
improvement  of  the  rural  schools. 

Only  devoted  and  progressive  teachers  can  measure  up 
to  the  responsibilities  now  presenting  themselves.  Only 
the  teacher  who  has  fully  entered  into  the  spirit  of  prog- 
ress beginning  to  actuate  our  agricultural  industries  and 
the  rural  schools  can  be  of  any  great  service  in  the  newer 
type  of  rural  school.    Indeed  the  unprogressive  teacher, 


128  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

the  teacher  who  is  not  able  or  willing  to  advance,  or  the 
teacher  who  has  fallen  into  the  rut  of  mechanical  teach- 
ing, would  be  of  far  more  use  in  a  school  of  the  old  type 
than  in  the  more  efficient  rural  school  of  the  present  and 
the  future.  The  rural  teacher  must  therefore  be  willing 
to  grow;  must  be  willing  to  come  into  the  full  spirit  of 
progress  and  to  master  the  knowledge  required  to  lead  in 
the  new  curriculum  and  new  methods  of  to-day.  He 
must  be  willing  and  able  to  cooperate,  with  superintend- 
ents and  other  educators  in  formulating  and  carrying  out 
a  progressive  program  for  the  reorganization  of  rural 
education. 

The  rural  teacher  must  take  teaching  seriously.  This 
does  not  mean  that  he  must  be  long-faced  and  solemn, 
The  teacher's  view  weighted  down  by  a  sense  of  responsi- 
of  his  vocation  bility.    The  teacher  should  of  all  per- 

sons be  possessed  of  a  ready  sense  of  humor,  and  be  able 
to  see  the  lighter  side  of  things.  But  he  should  also  be 
able  to  take  serious  things  seriously,  and  know  that  it 
means  something  to  be  commissioned  by  society  as  the 
leader  and  director  of  children.  He  must  comprehend  the 
wide-spread  social  movement  toward  efficiency  as  the  out- 
come of  all  true  education.  He  must  recognize  that  fail- 
ure on  his  part  can  but  result  in  depriving  childhood  of  its 
right  to  full  preparation  for  the  duties  and  opportunities 
that  lie  ahead.  No  thinking  person  will  therefore  enter 
on  such  responsibility  lightly,  or  pursue  the  occupation 
of  teaching  frivolously.  He  will  never  feel,  as  one 
thoughtless  teacher  expressed  his  own  attitude,  that  "it 
is  a  great  joke  to  be  teaching  the  kids."  He  will  give 
himself  unstintedly  to  his  work,  withholding  nothing  of 
time,  personality  or  effort  in  the  service  of  his  school. 
He  who  can  not  do  this  has  no  moral  right  to  take  upon 


THE    SPIRIT    OF    THE    TEACHER        129 

himself  the  obHgations  of  the  teacher, — especially  the 
rural  teacher. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  Have  you  observed  cases  where  one  teacher  failed 
and  another  succeeded  in  a  school  owing  to  a  difference 
in  the  spirit  brought  to  the  work  ?  Is  there  any  cure  for 
the  indifferent  teacher,  and  if  so,  what  ? 

2.  Is  a  teacher  justified  in  withholding  something  of 
his  best  effort  if  he  feels  that  the  salary  is  insufficient  to 
compensate  for  the  work  demanded?  Explain  the  para- 
dox, "He  who  does  not  earn  more  than  he  receives,  re- 
ceives more  than  he  earns." 

3.  A  pessimistic  writer  recently  said,  "Any  person,  no 
matter  how  much  he  professes  to  love  his  work,  will  leave 
this  work  if  you  offer  him  twenty  per  cent,  higher  salary 
somewhere  else."  Do  you  believe  this?  Is  it  not  a  per- 
son's duty  to  command  the  highest  salary  his  powers  will 
justify? 

4.  Account  for  the  fact  that  educational  service  is  paid 
less  than  service  in  commercial  lines.  For  example,  the 
president  of  one  of  our  largest  universities  receives  ten 
thousand  dollars  a  year;  the  president  of  an  insurance 
company  receives  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  a  year. 

5.  Do  you  believe  that  Miss  Wright,  whose  story  is 
told  in  the  chapter,  received  personal  rewards  in  satisfac- 
tion and  development  equivalent  to  the  sacrifice  required  ? 
Is  there  any  danger  of  being  miserly  with  one's  powers 
as  well  as  with  one's  money? 

6.  Have  you  known  persons  whose  qualities  of  char- 
acter seemed  to  be  brought  out  through  service?  Is  it 
necessary  that  the  service  be  in  some  conspicuous  position 
in  order  to  produce  such  a  result  ? 

7.  Have  you  known  teachers  who  seemed  to  feel  above 
the  work  they  were  doing  ?  Were  they  successful  teach- 
ers? 

8.  Which  is  the  better  position  so  far  as  investment  of 


I30  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

one's  influence  is  concerned,  the  elementary  school  or  the 
high  school  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  paradox  that  the  best 
teacher  is  the  one  who  renders  himself  unnecessary  to  his 
pupils  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII 


SCHOLASTIC  PREPARATION 


We  have  seen  how  the  spirit  brought  by  the  teacher  to 
his  work  is  the  first  proof  of  his  fitness.  But  this  spirit 
is  a  matter  of  growth  and  development.  Attitude  arises 
not  by  chance,  but  out  of  environment  and  training.  The 
teacher  can  not  create  a  certain  spirit  toward  his  work  by 
mere  compulsion  of  will  or  by  determination.  However 
good  his  intentions,  he  can  not  teach  that  which  he  does 
not  himself  know.  He  can  not  enter  fully  and  sympa- 
thetically into  the  life  and  interests  of  those  whose  expe- 
riences are  wholly  different  from  his.  He  must  have  some 
point  of  contact  with  the  people  he  serves,  some  common 
basis  of  thought,  feeling  and  knowledge.  The  rural 
teacher  must  therefore  be  educated,  so  that  he  can  lead 
and  inspire ;  he  must  be  trained,  so  that  he  can  teach ;  he 
must  be  at  heart  one  of  his  people,  so  that  he  can  enter 
into  their  lives  as  a  friend  and  leader.  His  spirit  and 
attitude  must  be  shaped  to  this  end  by  his  preparation  and 
training. 

For  it  is  only  as  the  teacher  has  made  concrete  in  his 
own  life  and  experience  the  standpoints  and  methods  he 
The  teacher  must  wishes  to  impress  on  others  that  he 
embody  the  truth  will  find  his  instruction  effective.  The 
^^  world  is  never  either  formed  or  re- 

formed by  abstract  truth  or  general  theory.  It  requires 
the  stimulus  of  actual  lives ;  for  it  is,  after  all,  the  lives  of 

131 


132  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

leaders  that  we  follow,  and  not  their  words.  This  truth 
has  not  always  been  recognized  in  teaching.  Not  infre- 
quently teachers  have  been  employed  who  had  not  mas- 
tered for  themselves  what  they  were  attempting  to  teach. 
And  we  have  therefore  had  the  spectacle  of  a  teacher 
trying  to  transplant  arithmetic,  grammar  or  geography 
directly  from  the  pages  of  the  text-book  into  the  minds 
of  the  pupils.  It  is  needless  to  say  this  process  is  always 
a  failure.  The  subject-matter  taught  must  have  first  be- 
come an  integral  part  of  the  knowledge  of  the  teacher. 
One  can  not  teach  what  does  not  come  from  within ;  one 
can  not  pick  matter  up  and  hand  it  on  to  others  without 
first  partaking  of  it  one's  self.  Knowledge,  standpoints, 
ideals,  and  all  other  values  must  first  be  so  thoroughly 
assimilated  that  they  are  a  real  part  of  us  before  we  can 
impart  them  to  others. 

The  rural  teacher  must  be  well  educated.     For  if  the 
blind  undertake  to  lead  the  blind  shall  not  both  fall  into 

The  blind  attempt-  ^^^  ^^^^^-  ^^^  P^^^^^  demand  does 
ing  to  lead  the  not,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  yet  in- 

'^     **  sist  on  adequate  scholastic  training  for 

teachers.  Even  in  some  very  rich  and  highly  intelligent 
states,  hardly  the  simplest  rudiments  of  knowledge  in 
the  fundamental  branches  are  required  of  rural  teachers. 
Thousands  of  schools  are  yet  taught  by  those  who  have 
had  little  or  no  schooling  in  advance  of  that  given  in  the 
rural  schools  themselves.  In  a  middle  western  state  one 
girl  who  failed  in  the  examinations  for  passing  from  the 
eighth  grade  into  the  high  school  of  her  home  town,  took 
the  teachers*  examination,  obtained  a  certificate  and  be- 
came a  teacher  in  the  rural  schools!  In  many  parts  of 
the  South  the  conditions  are  as  bad.  Such  a  situation  is 
a  shame  and  a  disgrace.    Where  standards  of  such  low 


SCHOLASTIC   PREPARATION  133 

grade  are  tolerated  by  the  public,  the  teachers  themselves 
ought  out  of  self-respect  to  arise  and  demand  adequate 
scholastic  preparation  as  a  condition  of  entrance  to  their 
professional  ranks.  Teachers  must  be  willing  to  do  this 
if  they  expect  to  stand  high  in  public  regard ;  if  they  hope 
to  increase  their  salaries ;  if  they  wish  to  be  laborers 
worthy  of  their  hire.  All  efforts,  therefore,  such  as  are 
sometimes  made  by  teachers  to  lower  the  scholastic  re- 
quirements for  certificates,  or  to  avoid  the  necessity  for 
professional  growth  and  development  as  a  condition  to 
promotions  or  advancement  in  the  grade  of  certificates, 
are  not  only  hostile  to  public  welfare,  but  inimical  to  the 
best  interests  of  the  teachers  themselves. 

These  are  days  of  high  prices — high  cost  of  living,  high 
priced  land,  and  highly  paid  labor.  The  most  expensive 
The  cost  of  commodity  of  the  present  age,  how- 

ignorance  ever,    is    ignorance.      Nor    can    the 

farmer,  any  more  than  those  in  any  other  vocation,  afford 
to  tolerate  it.  The  rural  teacher  and  the  rural  school  are 
coming  more  and  more  to  be  two  of  the  most  valuable 
assets  in  any  rural  community.  But  the  rural  teacher 
must  be  able  to  fulfil  his  part  of  the  contract ;  he  must  be 
prepared  for  the  greater  educational  demands  recently 
being  placed  on  him. 

Indeed,  teachers  are  in  these  days  being  selected  for  the 
rural  schools  on  a  new  and  different  basis  from  that 
New  demands  which  has  too  often  prevailed.     The 

upon  teachers  time    is    now    past    for    choosing    a 

teacher  because  of  his  physical  stature,  or  because  he  has 
a  reputation  for  "cleaning  out"  some  neighboring  school. 
He  is  no  longer  favored  because  he  happens  to  belong  to 
a  particular  political  party.  And  even  the  fact  of  his 
being  a  relative  of  an  influential  member  of  the  school 


134  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

board  is  coming  to  lose  its  coercive  power.  The  newer 
and  more  hopeful  type  of  question  is,  What  is  your  edu- 
cation? What  has  been  your  type  of  training?  What  do 
you  know  about  agriculture  and  life  on  the  farm  ?  What 
have  you  already  accomplished?  What  can  you  do  for 
this  school  and  community?  Are  you  really  prepared  to 
teach  school,  and  do  you  know  how,  or  are  you  only 
seeking  a  convenient  place  to  earn  a  little  money  ? 

Laws  have  been  enacted  in  a  number  of  states  requir- 
ing a  full  high-school  education  and  a  certain  amount  of 
normal  training  before  a  teacher's  certificate  can  be 
granted.  This  is  well ;  and  the  movement  will  spread  as 
fast  as  the  false  economy  of  employing  unprepared 
teachers  is  fully  realized.  But  this  is,  after  all,  only  an 
initial  step.  We  must  go  farther,  and  also  insist  that  the 
education  received  shall  be  of  the  type  to  fit  for  the 
special  problems  of  the  rural  school.  The  rural  teacher 
should  have  had  practical  training  on  the  farm  itself,  and 
should,  if  possible,  have  had  at  least  a  part  of  his  educa- 
tion in  the  rural  school.  For  only  in  this  way  can  he  have 
a  concrete  and  first-hand  knowledge  of  the  problems  to 
be  solved  through  his  teaching.  This  is  to  say  that  the 
scholastic  training  of  the  rural  teacher  must  include  a 
knowledge  of  farm  life  and  its  problems  as  well  as  of 
books.  A  scholastic  training  in  a  city  school,  with  no 
opportunity  for  acquaintance  with  rural  people  and  con- 
ditions, is  far  from  an  adequate  preparation  for  teaching 
a  rural  school.  Not  until  we  have  well-equipped  and 
highly  efficient  rural  high  schools,  as  well  as  elementary 
schools,  shall  we  be  able  to  offer  the  best  type  of  fitting 
for  the  rural  teacher. 

It  is  true  that  we  have,  especially  among  our  older  rural 
teachers,  many  who  have  not  had  the  advantage  of  a  high- 


SCHOLASTIC    PREPARATION  135 

school  education,  and  yet  are  doing  excellent  work.  Some 
of  these  began  when  high  schools  were  not  so  common  as 
Old  standards  they  are  now,  and  when  the  certifi- 

not  adequate  cate  requirements  were  less  exacting 

than  at  present.  Yet  these  teachers  with  limited  training, 
who  have  so  often  felt  the  need  of  better  preparation,  will 
be  the  first  to  advise  every  young  teacher  to  acquire  a 
thorough  education  before  entering  on  his  work.  And 
not  a  few  of  the  more  mature  and  successful  teachers 
have  found  it  worth  while  to  drop  out  of  teaching  for  a 
time  in  order  to  go  to  school  and  make  up  for  the  earlier 
lack  of  opportunity. 

Many  teachers  could  learn  a  valuable  lesson  from  the 
experience  of  John  Ricketts,  one  of  the  best  rural- 
school  teachers  of  his  state.  In  the  spring  of  1908, 
when  at  the  end  of  the  term  John  Ricketts  closed 
his  schoolhouse  for  the  vacation,  he  had  completed 
his  thirty-third  year  of  teaching  in  rural  schools. 
He  had  had  only  the  scanty  training  of  an  old- 
time  district  school  supplemented  by  his  own  experi- 
ence and  study.  He  was  of  the  growing  progressive  type, 
and  ranked  as  a  successful  teacher.  But  John  Ricketts 
had  caught  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  felt  that  he  owed 
his  school  and  community  greater  efficiency  than  he 
possessed.  The  following  September  found  him  enrolled 
in  one  of  the  best  normal  schools  of  his  state,  broadening 
his  grasp  of  the  subjects  he  had  been  teaching  so  many 
years,  and  studying  the  new  industrial  subjects  and  prac- 
tical agriculture.  He  even  took  a  course  in  sewing.  After 
a  year  of  study  he  returned  to  the  school  he  had  left.  He 
was  received  with  open  arms  and  an  increase  of  salary. 
He  introduced  agriculture,  manual  training,  drawing  and 
sewing  into  his  school.    He  taught  the  old  subjects  with 


136  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

a  new  enthusiasm  and  efficiency.    The  following  summer 

found  him  again  in  the  normal  school,  spending  his  entire 

vacation  in  study.    Again  he  returned  to  his  rural  school, 

this  time  with  his  efficiency  and  usefulness  so  increased 

that  his  services  were  in  demand  throughout  the  entire 

township.    So  John  Ricketts  went  on.    Each  summer  he 

spent  in  study  and  each  year  he  taught  better  for  this 

growth  and  knowledge.   To-day  he  is  receiving  in  salary 

almost  double  what  he  was  receiving  five  years  ago  when 

he  decided  to  strengthen  his  scholarship  and  broaden  his 

knowledge.     Half  a  dozen  different  school  corporations 

are  seeking  to  engage  him  for  their  schools.     Both  his 

responsibilities  and  his  salary  have  been  increased,  and  he 

is  now  supervisor  of  music,  drawing  and  industrial  work 

for  all  the  schools  of  his  township. 

John  Ricketts'  own  view  of  the  matter  is  as  follows: 

"I  taught  for  over  thirty  years  before  I  was  prepared  to 

teach.     I  did  not  grow  as  a  teacher 

A  worthy  example         ,       ,  ....  _ 

and   advance   m  position   because    I 

started  on  too  narrow  a  basis  of  education  and  reached 
my  limit  soon  after  I  had  begun.  I  taught  all  I  knew, 
and  did  the  best  I  could,  but  I  was  unable  to  do  really 
effective  teaching,  for  I  did  not  have  the  preparation.  It 
is  my  intention  to  spend  my  summers  at  some  good  school 
where  I  can  replenish  my  fund  of  knowledge  and  keep  in- 
creasing my  efficiency." 

The  example  set  by  John  Ricketts  thirty  years  after  he 
began  to  teach  should  be  followed  by  many  teachers  who 
Opportunities  open  are  yet  young  in  the  work.  It  should 
to  teachers  be  followed  by  still  others  who  are 

just  beginning.  And  this  can  be  accomplished  in  many  in- 
stances without  the  expense  of  leaving  home  to  attend  a 
distant  school.    Good  high  schools  are  available  in  every 


SCHOLASTIC   PREPARATION  137 

county.  Many  of  them  are  recently  coming  to  offer  nor- 
mal-training courses  especially  for  rural  teachers.  Almost 
every  county  also  has  its  summer  training  school  for 
teachers.  There  is  no  longer  any  excuse  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  for  lack  of  education  except  want  of  ambition, 
or  unwillingness  to  spend  the  time  and  money  in  prepara- 
tion. And  either  of  these  causes  proclaims  the  candidate 
unworthy  of  the  high  office  of  teacher. 

No  person  should  take  on  himself  the  responsibilities 
of  a  teacher  in  the  rural  schools  without  the  equal  of  at 

....  ,  ,  J  least  a  good  high-school  education. 
A  high-school  edu-  ,.,,  ,.        ,^        , 

cation  the  min-         He  owes  this  both  to  himself  and  to 

^"^""^  the  schools.     For  one  can  not  teach 

all  one  knows.  One  must  have  some  background  of 
knowledge  and  experience  beyond  that  daily  drawn 
on.  Otherwise  one's  teaching  will  lack  aim,  balance 
and  precision.  It  will  be  wanting  in  power  and  ef- 
fectiveness, for  these  come  from  the  reserve  force  of 
the  teacher.  It  will  fail  to  arouse  and  inspire,  for  in- 
spiration and  enthusiasm  have  their  roots  in  the  deeper 
levels  of  the  mind,  and  not  in  the  mere  surface  cur- 
rents. Nor  can  one  himself  fully  profit  from  experi- 
ence, and  grow  under  the  stimulus  of  responsibility  ex- 
cept as  he  has  a  reasonable  foundation  to  build  on.  Thou- 
sands of  teachers  are  finding  themselves  hindered,  baffled 
and  discouraged  by  problems  and  responsibilities  which 
they  could  easily  meet  had  they  adequate  preparation  for 
their  duties.  Difficulties  that  ought  to  serve  as  stepping- 
stones  to  greater  efficiency  become  stumbling-blocks  in  the 
way  of  progress  and  advancement.  Powers  and  capaci- 
ties that  should  develop  with  the  experience  of  the  school- 
room fail  to  advance  because  of  not  having  had  sufficient 
opportunities  for  growth.    Such  teachers,  having  in  them 


138  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

the  possibilities  of  great  service,  are  rendering  mediocre 
or  poor  service ;  possessing  the  capacity  for  great  personal 
success  and  achievement,  they  accompHsh  small  results. 
And  all  this  because  of  lack  of  sufficient  education  and 
training  for  their  w^ork. 

Nor  should  the  requirement  of  adequate  scholastic 
preparation  be  looked  on  by  teachers  as  a  hardship.  It  is 
Scholastic  require-  a  false  system  of  pedagogical  book- 
ments  no  hardship  keeping  that  leads  some  teachers  to 
place  on  the  debit  side  of  their  accounts  all  the  time,  effort 
and  money  expended  in  preparing  for  their  work,  and  on 
the  credit  side  only  the  salary  they  receive  in  return.  For 
all  that  is  required  of  a  teacher  in  the  way  of  scholastic 
preparation  for  his  work  is  valuable  and  necessary  just 
as  education.  No  intelligent,  ambitious  American  youth 
should  be  satisfied  to  enter  on  his  career  in  any  vocation 
to-day  with  less  than  a  good  high-school  education.  We 
are  asking  no  more  education  of  our  teachers,  therefore, 
than  twentieth-century  conditions  demand  of  all  who 
covet  success  and  happiness.  And  every  earnest  teacher 
will  be  willing  and  glad  to  meet  these  new  demands,  even 
at  the  cost  of  personal  effort  and  sacrifice. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  Regardless  of  requirements  in  your  own  state,  what 
do  you  think  is  the  least  amount  of  schooling  that  should 
admit  one  to  teaching?  Do  you  approve  of  the  require- 
ment in  certain  states  that  does  not  admit  candidates  to 
first  examination  for  a  teacher's  certificate  without  gradu- 
ation from  a  four-year  high  school  ? 

2.  In  some  states  the  teachers'  examination  papers  are 
all  graded  by  the  state  department  of  education  instead  of 
by  the  county  superintendent.  What  advantage  has  such 
a  plan  ? 


SCHOLASTIC   PREPARATION  139 

3.  Do  you  think  that,  in  general,  it  pays  teachers  to 
attend  summer  schools?  Is  there  danger  of  one  actually 
losing  ground  while  teaching  if  he  does  no  special  study  ? 

4.  In  some  states  even  low-grade  certificates  are  re- 
newable for  life  when  once  obtained.  Do  you  believe 
this  plan  is  best  for  the  schools? 

5.  Does  the  statement,  "Knowledge  is  power,"  hold 
in  teaching?  Amplify  your  answer  to  explain  just  what 
you  mean. 

6.  When  one  is  meeting  the  requirements  for  teaching 
is  one  not  adding  to  one's  own  education,  so  that  there 
is  no  real  hardship  involved  ?  Do  we  in  general  ask  more 
education  of  our  rural  teachers  than  all  American  citizens 
should  have  ? 

7.  Suppose  that  you  are  teaching,  but  have  never 
studied  agriculture,  and  that  this  subject  is  now  to  be 
added  in  your  school.  What  course  should  you  pursue? 
Is  there  danger  of  defeating  the  whole  purpose  of  the 
new  education  by  allowing  unprepared  teachers  to  at- 
tempt to  teach  what  they  do  not  know  ? 

8.  Suppose  a  girl  expects  to  teach  but  two  or  three 
years,  and  then  to  marry.  What  should  be  her  attitude 
toward  scholastic  preparation? 


CHAPTER  IX 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING 


Knowledge  of  subject-matter,  while  the  first  requisite 
in  the  training  of  the  teacher,  is  not  all.  It  is  one  thing 
to  possess  certain  knowledge,  and  quite  another  thing  to 
be  able  to  teach  it  to  others.  The  older  supposition  was 
that  scholastic  training  is  all  that  is  necessary  in  order 
to  become  a  successful  teacher.  But  we  have  discovered 
that  this  is  not  true.  The  great  specialist  is  often  the 
poorest  teacher.  President  Butler  says  that  the  worst  of 
all  teaching  is  being  done  in  the  colleges  and  universities. 
The  professors  are  noted  scholars,  but  many  of  them  are 
not  teachers.  They  are  masters  of  their  subjects,  but  they 
do  not  know  how  to  present  these  subjects  to  students. 

But  the  possession  of  knowledge  coupled  v/ith  inability 
to  teach  it  is  not  confined  to  college  specialists.    The  most 

Example  of  lack  ^^^^^^  ^^^^"^^  ^"  ^  ^^^^^^^  county^  in 
of  professional  a   western   state   noted   for   its   high 

training  scholastic  requirements   was  a  rural 

teacher  who  held  a  degree  from  the  justly  celebrated  uni- 
versity of  her  state.  She  began  teaching  when  normal 
training  was  not  considered  essential ;  she  did  not  know 
children,  nor  how  to  teach  them.  She  seemed  to  assume 
that  children  learn  just  as  she  herself  learned,  and  made 
no  effort  to  meet  them  on  their  own  level.  Finding  the 
elementary  branches  of  the  rural  school  easy  for  her  own 

140 


PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  141 

mind  to  grasp,  she  failed  to  understand  the  difficulties 
they  presented  to  the  minds  of  her  pupils.  This  woman 
has  now  taught  for  fifteen  years,  but  no  two  of  these 
years  in  the  same  school.  She  is  recognized  as  a  mediocre 
teacher  in  some  schools,  as  a  failure  in  others.  In  no 
school  is  she  called  a  success.  She  has  failed  and,  it  is  to 
be  feared,  always  will  fail,  because  she  lacks  knowledge 
of  children,  of  method,  of  school  organization  and  man- 
agement. The  chances  are  that  if  this  well-educated 
teacher  had  at  the  right  time  been  given  proper  instruc- 
tion and  help  in  the  practical  problems  of  the  schoolroom, 
she  would  have  developed  into  an  excellent  teacher.  But 
she  quickly  found  her  poor  methods  crystallizing  into  bad 
schoolroom  habits ;  she  early  fell  into  a  rut  of  inefficiency, 
and  has  now  been  too  long  in  that  rut  to  seek  a  better  way. 
She  has  lost  confidence  in  herself,  and  no  longer  expects 
success,  even  with  her  splendid  academic  equipment. 

This  is  no  argument  against  thorough  scholastic  train- 
ing. Far  from  it.  It  rather  shows  the  necessity  for 
^      . .  adding  to  one's  knowledge  of  subject- 

matter  the  further  knowledge  of  how 
to  teach  it.  For  teaching  is  an  art.  It  rests  on  certain 
scientific  principles,  and  has  to  be  learned,  the  same  as  any 
other  art.  We  say  that  some  persons  are  "born"  teach- 
ers ;  but  this  only  means  that  they  more  clearly  and  easily 
seize  the  fundamental  principles  underlying  instruction, 
and  more  skilfully  put  them  into  practise.  But  even 
"born"  teachers  need  to  be  trained  in  the  principles  of 
their  art.  For  such  training  will  save  them  from  many 
mistakes ;  and  a  teacher's  mistakes  are  always  made  at  the 
expense  of  some  child's  growth  and  development.  His 
acquisition  of  skill  as  a  teacher  has  cost  his  pupils  dear. 
We  do  not  place  tools  in  the  hands  of  an  untrained  work- 


142  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

man  and  set  him  at  work  on  expensive  rosewood  and  ma- 
hogany. We  first  train  him  in  the  use  of  his  tools,  so  that 
he  will  not  waste  costly  material.  Yet  the  rosewood  and 
mahogany  are,  after  all,  but  wood.  If  a  piece  is  spoiled 
it  does  not  so  much  matter ;  a  few  dollars  will  replace  it. 
But  the  teacher  works,  not  on  material  that  can  be  re- 
placed if  injured  or  destroyed,  but  on  lives  whose  success 
and  happiness  depend  on  the  teacher's  skill.  A  mistake 
made  in  the  education  of  a  child  can  never  be  wholly  com- 
pensated for.  "Art  is  long  and  time  is  fleeting."  Educa- 
tion-time is  all  too  short  at  best,  and  time  lost  through 
poor  methods  or  lack  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is 
irretrievably  gone.  There  can  be  no  making  up  for  the 
past ;  the  present  is  too  full  of  its  own  demands  and  op- 
portunities. It  is  more  than  probable  that  if  teachers 
were  able  to  put  into  practise  in  their  instruction  the  best 
pedagogical  principles  now  available  to  them,  at  least 
double  the  educational  progress  coidd  be  made  by  ouf 
children.  Think  of  the  time  and  opportunity  that  would 
then  be  saved !  Think  of  the  greater  efficiency  that  would 
result  from  our  schools,  and  the  greater  achievement  that 
would  be  wrought  by  our  people ! 

The  necessity  for  training  in  the  art  of  teaching  is  now 
coming  to  be  recognized  everywhere.  None  doubt  this 
Growth  of  normal  necessity  except  the  ignorant.  Hence 
training  ^e  find  normal  schools  springing  up 

in  every  state,  while  in  some  states  there  are  more  than 
a  score  such  schools. 

A  more  recent  movement  has  been  the  development 
of  normal-training  courses  for  rural  teachers  in  the  high 
schools.  Arkansas,  Maine,  New  York,  Michigan,  North 
Carolina,  Vermont,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa, 
Virginia  and  Wisconsin  are  in  the  process  of  developing 


PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  143 

systems  of  normal-training  high  schools,  where  the  pros- 
pective rural  teacher  can  acquire  scholastic  and  profes- 
sional training  at  the  same  time.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  movement  will  soon  spread  to  other  states.  Thus 
the  opportunities  are  multiplying  for  professional  as  well 
as  scholastic  training,  and  thousands  of  teachers  will  soon 
hardly  need  to  leave  their  own  homes,  and  certainly  not 
their  own  counties,  in  order  to  obtain  normal  prepara- 
tion for  their  teaching. 

These  schools  are  not  all  of  equal  worth  to  the  teacher. 
There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  value  of  the  training 
The  function  of  the  offered  in  normal  schools.  In  fact 
normal  school  some  so-called  normal  schools  are  lit- 

tle more  than  schools  for  additional  scholastic  training. 
They  seek  chiefly  to  teach  the  prospective  teacher  a  little 
more  history,  to  lead  him  to  study  a  few  more  literary 
classics,  to  enable  him  to  solve  more  difficult  problems  in 
algebra  or  arithmetic.  They  ask  him  to  familiarize  him- 
self with  additional  scientific  classifications,  and  to  learn 
still  deeper  and  more  technical  truths  concerning  analyt- 
ical psychology.  These  things  are  all  abundantly  worth 
while  as  a  part  of  the  academic  education  of  the  teacher. 
But  it  is  not  the  chief  function  of  the  normal  school  to 
teach  them.  The  normal  school  will  need,  of  course,  to 
teach  a  certain  amount  of  scholastic  material.  For 
method  and  principles  can  not  be  separated  from  the  mat- 
ter to  which  they  apply.  The  great  work  of  the  normal 
school,  however,  is  to  teach  how  to  teach.  And  all  mat- 
ter taught  to  prospective  teachers  in  normal  schools 
should  be  taught  them  primarily  as  teachers  instead  of  as 
learners.  If  the  teacher  is  ready  to  take  up  the  work  of 
the  normal  school,  it  is  not  more  grammar  that  he  needs 
to  study,  but  how  to  teach  the  grammar  he  knows.    It 


144  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

is  not  more  skill  in  arithmetic  that  he  requires,  but  more 
skill  in  teaching  arithmetic  to  children.  And  so  on  with 
all  the  remainder  of  the  subjects.  The  practical  con- 
crete problems  of  the  class  and  the  schoolroom  should 
constitute  the  center  of  attention  and  effort  in  normal 
training. 

To  this  end  the  normal  school  must  be  able  to  demon- 
strate in  actual  operation  among  children  in  school  the 
Need  for  "observa-  theories  and  methods  presented.  This 
tion  work"  is  to  say  that  normal-training  schools, 

whether  public  normal  schools  or  normal  high  schools, 
must  afford  an  opportunity  for  prospective  teachers  to 
watch  the  instruction  of  children,  or  to  take  part  in  it 
themselves  under  the  direction  of  a  training  teacher.  How 
different  might  have  been  the  result  if  the  university 
graduate  mentioned  had  taught  her  first  school  fresh 
from  the  influence  of  a  helpful  critic  teacher !  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  she  would  not  have  been  a  failure,  but  pos- 
sibly even  a  marked  success.  She  could  have  observed 
how  a  skilful  teacher  manages  and  teaches  children.  She 
would  have  discovered  the  necessity  of  meeting  children 
on  their  own  mental  plane,  and  not  expecting  them  to  be 
grown-up  in  their  grasp  and  understanding.  She  would 
have  learned  that  scolding  and  bickering  and  faultfinding 
are  not  the  best  way  of  controlling  a  school,  and  that  lec- 
turing is  a  poor  method  of  instruction.  And  having 
been  thus  started  ri^ht  in  her  career,  her  chance  of  be- 
coming a  successful  teacher  would  have  been  greatly  in- 
creased. 

Rural  teachers  of  the  present  day  need  especially  to  be 
taught  how  to  present  the  newer  and  more  practical  sub- 
Training  to  teach  jects,  such  as  agriculture,  manual 
newer  subjects  training  and  domestic  science.     Nor- 


PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  145 

mal  training  should  therefore  include  a  strong  labora- 
tory course  in  these  branches,  with  especial  emphasis  on 
how  to  correlate  them  with  other  school  subjects  and  teach 
them  to  children.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  rural  teacher 
may  have  had  much  practical  experience  on  the  farm,  or 
with  tools.  One  may  know  a  great  deal  about  agriculture, 
and  yet  be  ignorant  of  the  art  of  teaching  it  to  children. 
Many  a  good  farmer  makes  a  very  poor  instructor  to  his 
boys.  John  Ricketts  knew  much  about  farming,  carpentry, 
sewing  and  cooking  before  he  attended  the  normal  school ; 
but  he  did  not  know  just  what  of  these  things  to  teach 
or  how  best  to  present  them  to  children.  A  high  school 
which  has  recently  introduced  manual  training  thought 
to  make  the  work  very  practical  by  employing  as  instruc- 
tor a  skilled  mechanic  of  the  town.  But  he  proved  a 
lamentable  failure.  The  man  had  handled  tools  all  his 
life,  but  he  could  not  teach  others  to  use  them.  So  great 
is  the  difference  between  knowing  a  thing,  and  knowing 
how  to  cause  others  to  learn  it. 

The  fate  of  the  new  branches  now  being  introduced 
into  the  rural  schools  will  depend  in  large  degree  on  the 
skill  and  effectiveness  with  which  they  are  taught.  If 
the  teacher  presents  agriculture  in  an  impractical  way, 
revealing  his  own  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  subject  or  his 
inability  to  teach  it,  both  the  pupils  and  their  parents  will 
doubt  the  value  of  its  study.  If  manual  training  is  looked 
upon  chiefly  as  play,  and  useful  only  in  making  bric-a- 
brac  and  fragile  ornaments,  the  school  board  may  well 
hesitate  to  invest  money  in  tools  and  equipment.  If  do- 
mestic science  is  conceived  only  as  an  opportunity  to  do 
some  interesting  puttering  around  while  cooking  fudge 
or  preparing  fancy  desserts,  it  will  be  sure  to  fail  in 
awakening  enthusiasm  among  the  practical  housewives 


146  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

of  the  school  community.  Each  of  these  great  lines  of 
study  must  be  understood  in  its  fundamental  and  deeply 
practical  bearings.  The  teacher  needs  to  comprehend 
their  relation  to  the  most  vital  interests  and  welfare  of 
his  people.  And  he  must  know  how  to  teach  them  that 
they  may  accomplish  the  ends  sought  through  placing 
them  in  the  rural  school, — the  better  fitting  of  the  boys 
and  girls  into  the  practical  life  and  duties  of  farm  and 
home. 

The  rural  teacher  who  to-day  possesses  a  good  educa- 
tion and  a  practical  normal  training  has  a  great  advantage 
Advantages  to  the  °^^^  ^^^  untrained  teacher.  Many  of 
professionally  these  better-prepared  teachers  are  be- 

trained  teacher  ginning  their  first  schools  with  more 

helpful  knowledge  of  school  work  than  older  teachers 
had  after  teaching  several  years  in  a  hit-and-miss  fashion 
with  no  one  to  show  them  how.  School  officials  who 
visit  the  schools  now  taught  by  these  inexperienced  but 
well-trained  teachers  can  hardly  believe  that  such  excel- 
lent work  can  come  from  one  who  has  taught  so  little. 
Their  success  is  the  result  of  education  and  training,  the 
proof  that  it  pays  to  take  time  for  preparation.  These 
teachers  are  receiving  immediate  and  substantial  rewards 
for  their  more  efficient  service.  They  are  chosen  for 
promotion,  the  better  positions  are  open  to  them,  and 
they  are  the  first  to  receive  increased  salaries.  Above  all 
they  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  they  are  doing 
their  work  well,  and  thus  contributing  to  the  efficiency  and 
welfare  of  their  pupils. 

The  professional  training  of  the  teacher  includes  a 
knowledge  of  child  life.  This,  like  other  phases  of  train- 
ing, is  partly  a  matter  of  books,  but  it  is  also  a  matter 
of  intelligent  and  sympathetic  observation.     Here,  too, 


PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  147 

the  spirit  of  the  teacher  is  an  all-important  factor.  Chil- 
dren are  often  not  understood  simply  because  the  teacher 

_     ,      .       ,       .        has  not  taken  the  trouble  to  under- 
Professional  tram-  tt     t         r  1  • 
ing  includes  the         stand  them.     He   has   forgotten   his 

^^^^  own  childhood,  and  does  not  remem- 

ber that  when  he  was  a  child  he  spoke  as  a  child,  he  un- 
derstood as  a  child,  he  thought  as  a  child.  And  now  that 
he  has  become  a  man,  he  has  put  away  childish  things  so 
completely  that  he  no  longer  knows  childhood  or  enters 
into  its  spirit. 

One  teacher  describes  an  incident  that  illustrates  the 
lack  of  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  children.  She, 
as  principal  of  her  building,  stepped  into  a  schoolroom 
where  some  forty  bright-eyed  boys  and  girls  of  nine  and 
ten  were  sitting.  Outside  the  haze  was  gathering,  and 
the  dull  gray  clouds  hung  low.  Suddenly  it  began  to 
snow,  first  slowly,  and  then  in  great  flurries.  It  was  the 
first  snow  of  winter.  The  children  turned  to  look  out 
of  the  window,  happiness  on  every  face.  One  small  boy 
in  his  enthusiasm  forgot  where  he  was,  and  said  in  a 
loud  whisper,  "Look,  it's  snowing!"  The  teacher  had 
been  annoyed  by  the  wandering  eyes.  "We  all  know  it's 
snowing,"  she  said  in  a  cold  level  voice;  "we  have  seefi 
it  snow  before.  We  are  drawing  maps  now.'*  So  the 
children  went  back  to  their  maps  with  a  sigh,  and  the  gap 
widened  a  little  between  them  and  their  teacher.  "Ah 
me!"  concludes  our  principal;  "She  has  forgotten  the 
first  snow  when  one  is  ten  and  just  before  Christmas."^ 

Another  teacher,  by  no  means  heartless,  surely  failed  to 
comprehend  that  heartache  may  be  as  real  and  cause  ai 
The  unkind  much  suffering  in  the  child  as  in  the 

teacher  adult.    A  certain  day  had  been  trying 

*In  Living  Teachers. 


148  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

and  the  children  were  restless.  Small,  freckle-faced  Mary 
had  twisted  and  turned  about  more  than  once  during  the 
long  afternoon.  Finally  the  last  straw  came,  and  the 
teacher  said  in  a  voice  that  cut,  "Mary,  if  I  had  a  face  like 
yours,  I  would  not  turn  around  so  often  and  show  it 
to  others."  Poor  Mary's  freckles  were  buried  in  a  flood 
of  scarlet,  her  eyes  slowly  filled  until  they  overflowed, 
and  she  at  last  dropped  her  disgraced  head  on  her  arms 
and  sobbed  until  her  small  form  shook  and  her  breath 
came  in  broken  gasps.  And  all  because  her  teacher  failed 
to  keep  close  to  the  heart  of  childhood.  Nor  is  the  sequel 
of  this  incident  without  its  lesson.  For,  when  the  back 
of  the  thoughtless  teacher  was  turned,  a  small  red-hairea 
knight  across  the  aisle  leaned  over  and  whispered  in 
Mary's  ear:  "Never  mind,  Mary;  she's  none  too  good 
looking  herself!" — Ah,  could  we  all  as  teachers  but 
measure  up  to  van  Dyke's  challenge  when  he  cries  out  for 
"a  friend  whose  heart  has  eyes  to  see" ! 

One  who  understands  childhood  is  able  to  meet  his 
pupils  on  their  own  intellectual  ground.  He  does  not  at- 
Teaching  children  tempt  to  teach  dry  and  formal  rules 
instead  of  subjects  instead  of  living  interesting  matter. 
Meaningless  definitions  are  not  foisted  on  the  children  as 
knowledge.  Tangled  and  meaningless  problems  in  arith- 
metic give  way  to  problems  dealing  with  matters  of  ex- 
perience and  interest.  Points  at  which  the  child's  mind  is 
puzzled  are  foreseen  by  the  teacher  and  help  is  given. 
Explanations  are  couched  in  terms  understood  by  the 
pupil.  In  fact,  such  a  teacher  teaches  the  child  and  not 
the  subject. 

A  teacher  who  failed  to  understand  the  working  of  a 
child's  mind  answered  the  raised  hand  of  a  boy  sitting 
puzzled  over  a  problem  in  arithmetic.  The  class  had  just 


PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING  149 

begun  the  study  of  interest,  and  Dan  knew  nothing  con- 
cerning the  borrowing  of  money,  the  giving  of  notes,  and 
pay  for  the  use  of  the  money.  For  this  teacher  was  of 
the  kind  who  teach  just  what  they  find  in  the  text-book, 
nothing  more  and  nothing  less.  Dan  said  to  the  teacher, 
"I  don't  understand  this  example,  and  don't  know  how 
to  work  it."  The  teacher  looked  her  annoyance  as  she 
answered,  "O  Dan!  can't  you  understand  anything? 
Didn't  "I  tell  you  that  the  principal  times  the  rate  times 
the  time  equals  the  interest?" — ^pause.  Dan  sulkily 
nods  his  head.  The  teacher's  face  shows  relief.  She 
concludes  her  explanation:  "Well,  that's  all  there  is  to 
it ;  the  principal  times  the  rate  times  the  time  equals  the 
interest.  Now  you  see!"  Poor  Dan!  The  blind  was 
leading  the  blind  and  both  were  falling  into  the  ditch — 
Dan,  into  the  ditch  of  despondency  and  dislike  for  school ; 
the  teacher  into  the  ditch  of  inefficiency  and  uselessness. 

The  teacher  who  is  able  to  enter  fully  into  the  lives  of 
his  pupils  becomes  a  very  potent  influence  in  their  de- 
Influence  of  the  velopment.  Most  of  us  can  now  look 
strong  teacher  back  to  our  own  school-days  and  recall 

one  or  more  teachers  who  stand  out  in  our  memory  as 
a  great  source  of  inspiration  and  helpfulness.  This  ideal 
teacher  was  a  sort  of  hero  or  heroine  in  our  eyes,  partly 
idealized  in  our  imagination,  it  is  true,  and  yet  a  very  real 
and  powerful  factor  in  our  growth.  Perhaps  the  great- 
est secret  of  this  teacher's  power  over  us  was  his  com- 
plete understanding  of  us.  He  knew  where  our  benighted 
minds  would  be  puzzled  in  our  studies,  he  entered  into 
our  childish  interests  and  enthusiasms,  he  remembered 
that  we  were  dust,  and  therefore  could  not  be  paragons 
of  perfection. 

Happy  is  the  teacher  who  thus  understands  the  secret 


I50  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

springs  of  ambition  in  the  heart  of  youth.  Professor 
James  tells  us  that  there  is  a  moment  in  the  life  of  every 
normal  boy  which,  if  seized  on  when  the  time  is  ripe,  can 
be  utilized  to  make  out  of  him  poet,  philosopher,  artist, 
artisan,  or  whatever  it  is  his  to  be.  But  if  this  moment 
is  let  go  by,  if  the  smoldering  spark  of  ambition  is  not 
fanned  into  flame,  the  occasion  is  lost  and  ambition  and 
aspiration  may  die.  An  eminent  statesman  and  brilliant 
lawyer  was  recently  asked  what  was  the  secret'  of  his 
success.  He  answered:  "A  school-teacher  who  under- 
stood the  hunger  in  the  heart  of  a  boy.  One  day  he 
found  me,  a  bitter  and  discontented  youth  with  scanty 
education  and  no  prospects,  following  a  rude  plow  across 
a  stony  and  exhausted  field.  He  sat  down  beside  me  on 
the  old  wooden  plow  beam,  and  found  his  way  into  my 
life.  He  read  me  like  a  book,  for  he  understood  me. 
After  he  had  gone  I  was  astonished  at  the  strange  fire 
of  ambition  that  was  burning  in  my  soul.  That  was  all 
I  needed;  time  and  work  have  accomplished  the  rest 
But  I  do  not  like  to  think  what  might  have  been  the 
outcome  of  my  life  if  that  teacher  had  not  understood 
me,  and  talked  to  me  there  by  the  plow." 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  Have  you  observed  teachers  whose  knowledge  of 
subject-matter  seemed  sufficient,  but  who  failed  because 
of  not  understanding  how  to  teach  it  to  others  ? 

2.  Do  you  think  a  teacher  is  morally  justified  in  learn- 
ing to  teach  through  "experience"  gained  by  experiment- 
ing on  children,  when  opportunities  are  at  hand  for  pro- 
fessional study,  practise  teaching  and  observation  work 
in  normal  schools  ? 

3.  We  are  at  present  much  concerned  over  securing 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  151 

but  bne-lialf  the  crop  our  soil  is  capable  of  producing. 
Apply  this  same  principle  to  our  schools  in  the  light  of  the 
estimate  that  double  the  progress  could  be  made  by  the 
children  if  they  were  taught  by  correct  methods.  What 
are  your  conclusions  ? 

4.  We  occasionally  hear  it  said  that  any  one  who 
knows  a  subject  well  can  teach  it.  Is  this  true?  It  is 
also  rather  commonly  assumed  that  almost  any  one  can 
teach  young  children.  Why  should  young  children  have 
the  choicest  and  best  prepared  teachers  ? 

5.  Outline  what  you  think  the  necessary  education, 
both  academic  and  professional,  for  one  about  to  take  up 
teaching  in  the  rural  schools. 

6.  Does  professional  training  pay  financially?  (Make 
a  comparison  of  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  your  county 
who  have  had  professional  training  and  those  who  have 
not.  Also,  take  into  account  the  better  opportunities  for 
promotion.) 

7.  Have  you  known  teachers  to  fail  because  of  failure 
to  understand  children?  Were  such  teachers  usually 
lacking  in  sympathy  for  people  in  general  ?  Can  you  rec- 
ommend a  remedy?  (Study  of  psychology  and  cultiva- 
tion of  interest  in  others.) 

8.  Are  children  more  or  less  sensitive  than  adults? 
Are  they  usually  treated  with  as  much  consideration  as 
to  their  real  rights  as  are  adults?  Does  treating  a  child 
with  consideration  mean  weakness  or  lack  of  control  ? 


CHAPTER  X 

TEACHER  AND  COMMUNITY 

The  teacher,  like  all  other  employees  of  the  state,  is  in 
some  sense  a  public  personage.  His  duties  and  relations 
do  not  terminate  with  the  school,  but  extend  to  every 
individual  and  home  in  the  community.  The  teacher  can 
not  say,  I  am  employed  by  the  district  only  for  the  time 
from  nine  o'clock  until  four  on  five  days  each  week ;  and 
it  is  no  one's  business  what  I  do  outside  of  this  time. 
No  public  servant  can  take  this  position,  much  less  can 
the  teacher.  Having  employed  a  teacher,  the  rural  com- 
munity feels  a  species  of  general  proprietorship  in  him 
and  all  his  aflFairs.  He  is  freely  discussed,  and  openly 
blamed  or  praised.  Nothing  he  does  escapes  notice  and 
judgment.  His  conduct,  his  speech,  or  his  clothing,  is 
equally  a  subject  for  comment  or  criticism. 

Nor  should  the  teacher  blame  the  community  or  feel 
any  resentment  over  what  at  first  thought  may  seem  an 
The  teacher  owes  unwarranted  assumption  of  the  right 
full  service  to  appropriate  him  completely,  once 

the  community  has  paid  for  a  fraction  of  his  time.  For 
one  in  a  public  position  such  as  teaching  can  not  sell  a 
certain  portion  of  his  time,  or  powers,  or  influence.  It 
is  true  the  teacher  may  not  be  compelled  to  .work  in  the 
schoolroom  seven  days  a  week  instead  of  five,  or  ten 
hours  a  day  in  place  of  six.    But  his  interests,  his  thought 

152 


TEACHER   AND   COMMUNITY  153 

and  plans,  his  sympathy  and  cooperation,  his  uprightness 
and  good  example  are  placed  wholly  under  tribute  to  the 
community  when  the  contract  is  entered  into.  There  can 
be  no  reservations,  no  withholding  of  service  or  influence, 
no  feeling  that  the  teacher  belongs  to  the  community 
during  the  school  hours  but  not  outside  of  school  hours. 
For  however  true  this  may  be  in  a  legal  sense,  from  a 
higher  point  of  view  such  an  attitude  is  impossible  for 
the  true  teacher;  it  contradicts  the  very  idea  of  whole- 
hearted service,  and  shows  the  teacher  lacking  in  the 
spirit  necessary  to  the  highest  success. 

But  even  the  willingness  to  give  himself  wholly  to  his 
work  does  not  insure  the  teacher's  success.    Many  teach- 

Knowledge  of  ^^^   ^^^^'   "°^  because  they  withhold 

community  essen-  their  effort,  but  because  they  do  not 
know  their  communities,  and  hence  do 
not  understand  their  needs,  standards  and  attitudes. 
They  look  on  the  school  as  a  thing  in  itself,  apart  from 
the  community,  and  finally  discover  that  the  school  is  but 
one  part  of  the  larger  community  life,  and  can  be  under- 
stood and  successfully  carried  on  only  in  connection  witli 
this  larger  whole. 

One  such  teacher  had  recently  completed  a  very  suc- 
cessful term  in  a  community  which  she  knew  well. 
She  took  a  new  school  in  a  distant  part  of  the  same 
county  in  a  community  wholly  unknown  to  her.  On  the 
Saturday  preceding  the  opening  of  the  new  term  she  ar- 
rived in  the  neighborhood,  not  knowing  where  she  was 
to  board.  Some  one  suggested  the  home  of  Samuel 
Dwight.  She  became  a  member  of  the  Dwight  family, 
attending  church  with  them  on  the  following  day,  and 
being  introduced  to  many  of  the  neighbors  as  the  "new 
teacher."    On  Monday  the  new  teacher  noticed  that  she 


154  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

was  received  by  the  school  less  cordially  than  was  the 
custom  in  former  schools.  By  the  middle  of  the  week 
she  began  to  hear  whispers  of  criticism.  Before  the  first 
week  had  ended  she  knew  something  was  wrong.  On  the 
next  Sunday,  the  school  trustee  explained  to  her  the 
trouble :  The  community  was  divided  by  a  bitter  factional 
fight,  and  Samuel  Dwight  was  leader  of  an  unpopular  mi- 
nority.    She  had  chosen  the  wrong  boarding-place. 

This  new  teacher  had  blundered  innocently,  but  she  had 
blundered.  If  she  had  known  her  community  before  en- 
gaging her  boarding-place  or  opening  the  school,  she 
could  have  avoided  the  mistake,  and  saved  herself  much 
unhappiness  and  worry.  For,  try  hard  as  she  might,  this 
excellent  teacher  found  it  impossible  to  regain  her  stand- 
ing in  that  community,  and  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
school,  an  acknowledged  failure.  The  school  had  failed 
in  efficiency  to  the  community,  and  she  failed  in  render- 
ing her  best  service  in  the  school. 

In  striking  contrast  with  this  case  was  that  of  another 
teacher  who,  in  the  earlier  days,  was  employed  to  teach 
the  winter  term  in  a  rural  school  in  northern  Missouri. 
This  young  man,  a  mere  stripling,  had  heard  something 
of  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  his  school.  The 
former  teachers  had  been  turned  out  each  winter  for  the 
three  preceding  years.  Our  young  stripling  looked  like 
an  easy  mark,  for  he  was  small  and  slender,  and  not 
skilled  in  the  rougher  arts  of  self-defense.  He  went 
over  to  the  district  a  full  week  before  the  school  was  to 
open,  to  see  if  perchance  he  could  better  prepare  for  the 
opening  day.  He  went  about  the  neighborhood  and  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  patrons  and  the  pupils.  Espe- 
cially did  he  look  up  one  particular  boy  called  Bill.  He 
desired  to  become  acquainted  with  Bill,  for  two  reasons : 


TEACHER   AND    COMMUNITY  155 

Bill  was  something  of  a  hunter,  and  the  teacher  liked  to 
hunt.  But  Bill  was  also  a  leader  of  the  gang  that  had 
turned  the  previous  teachers  out,  and  the  teacher  wanted 
to  win  Bill  to  his  side.  The  teacher  and  Bill  went  coon 
hunting  together ;  they  shucked  corn  into  the  same  wagon. 
Before  the  end  of  the  week  they  had  become  friends. 

Monday  morning  came,  and  the  young  teacher  was  at 
the  school  early.  TKe  boys  began  to  assemble  on  the 
"Bill"  becomes  a  school  ground.  The  teacher  heard 
friend  them  talking  as  he  worked  by  an  open 

window.  They  were  planning  how  they  would  begin  on 
the  new  teacher,  and  were  laying  wagers  as  to  how  long 
he  would  last.  Suddenly  the  teacher  heard  a  new  voice 
enter  the  conference.  It  was  Bill.  "What's  up,  boys  ?" 
said  Bill.  They  told  him,  expecting  Bill  to  suggest  a 
bolder  and  more  effective  plan  than  they  had  conceived, 
and  then  to  take  the  lead  in  its  execution.  But  imagine 
their  astonishment  when  Bill  answered:  "It's  all  off, 
boys.  Nobody  is  going  to  interfere  with  the  new  teacher. 
I've  got  acquainted  with  him  and  he's  the  right  kind. 
He's  square ;  he'll  be  fair.  I'm  his  friend,  and  anybody 
that  puts  up  trouble  for  him  has  got  me  to  lick — See?" 
They  saw. 

This  incident  was  related  in  introducing  the  two  prin- 
cipal speakers  before  a  great  educational  convention  a 
Two  famous  number  of  years  ago.    These  speak- 

educators  ers     were     Bill     and     his      former 

teacher,  still  fast  friends  and  now  famous  educa- 
tors. They  were  introduced  as  "the  Honorable  William 
T.  Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education," 
and  "the  Honorable  Henry  Sabin,  State  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  in  Iowa."  The  young  stripling  of 
a  teacher,  by  his  willingness  to  make  himself  one  of  his 


156  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

school  community,  had  been  instrumental  in  giving  to  his 
country  one  of  the  greatest  educators  of  modern  times, 
and  had  foreshadowed  his  own  highly  honorable  and  use- 
ful educational  career.  Besides  this,  he  had  won  out  in 
his  winter's  school. 

The  teacher  who  is  to  take  a  helpful  part  in  arousing 
a  sentiment  for  better  education  and  in  promoting  higher 
The  teacher  must  efficiency  in  rural  schools  must  be- 
become  part  of  come  an  integral  part  of  the  commu- 
the  community         j^j^-y^  'pj^jg  influence  can  not  be  exerted 

by  an  outsider;  it  must  come  from  one  who,  in  interest 
and  sympathies,  is  closely  united  with  his  people.  Nor 
can  this  attitude  of  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
have  anything  of  the  artificial  or  professional  in  it.  Make- 
believe  will  not  serve.  The  interest  manifested  in  the  life 
of  the  community  must  be  deep-seated  and  true.  The 
shallow  and  false  is  easily  detected,  and  people  resent 
nothing  more  quickly  than  being  patronized.  The  teacher 
who  feels,  however,  that  he  is  wanting  in  this  broader 
and  deeper  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  whole  com- 
munity need  not  excuse  himself  on  this  ground  from  tak- 
ing any  part  in  the  community  life.  The  remedy  for  a 
spirit  of  indifference  is  service.  We  are  always  deeply 
interested  in  those  we  are  seeking  to  help,  and  there  is 
no  cure  like  disinterested  service  for  narrowness  and 
provincialism.  Even  a  small  self-centered  nature  can 
take  a  small  circle  of  intimates  into  his  thought  and 
sympathy ;  but  it  requires  a  broad  generous  nature  to  in- 
clude the  many.  And  more  than  one  teacher  has  found 
his  own  personality  expanding  and  his  interest  in  human- 
ity growing  stronger  and  more  inclusive  because  he  has 
forgotten  himself  in  unselfish  work  for  his  school  and 
its  people. 


TEACHER   AND    COMMUNITY  157 

Ability  to  enter  fully  into  the  spirit  and  activities  of  the 
rural  community  depends  in  large  degree  on  familiarity 
with  rural  life.  A  large  proportion  of  our  rural  teachers 
are  girls  and  boys  from  the  town  schools  who  have  never 
lived  on  a  farm.  Not  a  few  of  these  young  people  have 
a  feeling  of  superiority  over  country  people,  and  a  tend- 
ency to  pity  every  one  who  is  obliged  to  live  outside  a 
town  or  city.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  this 
attitude  arises  chiefly  from  ignorance  of  the  possibilities 
of  country  life,  and  from  lack  of  acquaintance  with  rural 
people. 

No  teacher  can  render  the  maximum  of  service  in  a 
rural  school  or  be  the  element  of  strength  he  should  be  in 
Interests  must  in-  the  community  unless  his  knowledge, 
elude  the  farm  ^jg  interests  and  his  experience  extend 

beyond  the  boundary  lines  of  towns  or  cities  or  school- 
room walls.  His  horizon  must  reach  out  into  the  open 
fields  of  rural  life.  If  the  teacher  would  become  a  true 
leader  of  rural  children  along  pathways  that  lead  to  the 
farms  instead  of  to  the  towns,  he  must  know  thoroughly 
both  the  pathway  and  its  goal.  Necessary  as  text-book 
knowledge  and  normal  training  are,  these  are  but  the 
foundation.  The  teacher  must  know  rural  life  and  needs 
so  well  that  he  can  relate  all  the  work  of  the  school  to 
their  problems  and  conditions. 

David  Starr  Jordan  says,  "The  knowledge  which  is  of 
most  worth  to  most  people  is  that  which  can  be  most 
The  teacher  must  directly  wrought  into  the  fabric  of 
know  farm  chil-  their  lives.  And  the  discipline  which 
is  of  most  value  to  most  people  is  that 
which  can  best  serve  in  the  unfolding  of  their  individual- 
ities." If  this  be  true  the  teacher  must  know  the  fabric 
of  the  daily  life  of  his  pupils,  and  the  direction  which  the 


158  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

unfolding  of  their  individualities  should  take.  And  he 
can  not  know  these  things  and  remain  ignorant  of  the 
farm  and  its  possibilities. 

Not  a  few  teachers  coming  from  the  towns  to  teach  tn 
rural  schools  are  unhappy  aftd  below  their  best  in  effi- 
Teachers  must  ex-  ciency  because  they  can  not  accustom 
pect  limitations  themselves  to  the  isolation  and  certain 
privations  of  the  country.  In  place  of  well-paved  and 
electric-lighted  streets,  they  find  dark  and  muddy  roads. 
They  miss  the  street-cars,  the  fine  shops  and  stores,  the 
theaters  and  picture  shows.  The  country  appears  to  them 
dead  and  monotonous  without  the  glare  and  the  glamour 
and  the  crowds  of  the  city.  But  rural  life  is  not  made 
up  of  these  things,  and  the  teacher  who  is  not  able  to  work 
contentedly  without  them  should  stay  out  of  the  rural 
schools.  Or,  better  still,  he  should  seek  until  he  finds  the 
compensations  in  rural  life  that  render  the  city  no  longer 
necessary  to  his  contentment  and  happiness. 

One  teacher  lost  the  best  of  her  influence  and  the 
greater  part  of  her  usefulness  in  a  rural  school  because 
City  methods  not  ^^^  attempted  to  force  on  the  school 
adapted  to  country  the  methods  to  which  she  had  been 
accustomed  in  the  town  high  school.  As  a  high-school 
pupil  she  had  been  required  to  prepare  certain  lessons 
and  do  assigned  reading  in  the  evening  at  home.  This 
looked  reasonable  enough,  so  she  placed  the  same  require- 
ments on  the  farm  boys  and  girls  during  the  busy  season 
of  the  year,  not  realizing  the  amount  of  work  expected 
of  these  children  around  the  house  and  the  garden  and 
in  the  barnyard  chores.  Of  course  there  was  criticism, 
then  objection,  and  finally  remonstrance  and  rebellion. 
This  teacher  would  have  been  saved  her  mistake  had  she 
known  that  most  of  her  pupils  were  up  and  at  work  in  the 


TEACHER   AND    COMMUNITY  159 

morning  full  two  hours  before  her  own  day  began,  and 

that  they  closed  their  day  and  were  asleep  in  the  evening 

at  the  time  she  would  be  settling  down  to  her  reading. 

She  was  ignorant  of  rural  life  and  work. 

We  are  inclined  in  these  modern  days  to  smile  at  the 

old  pioneer  custom  of  "boarding  'round"  as  a  means  of 

--         .  caring  for  the  teacher.     Under  this 

Becoming  ?.c-  ** 

quainted  with  the  plan  the  teacher  was  expected  to  stay 
community  ^  week  at  a  time  at  the  home  of  each 

of  the  patrons  of  the  school.  In  this  way  he  shared  in 
the  collective  life  of  the  community  and  came  to  know  in 
a  very  practical  way  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his 
pupils  and  their  parents.  Of  course  no  one  would  advo- 
cate a  return  to  such  a  system,  yet  it  had  its  advantages. 
And  our  problem  to-day  is  to  gain  that  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  actual  daily  life  and  thought  of  our  pupils 
that  the  old-time  teacher  was  able  to  get  from  becoming 
temporarily  a  member  of  their  families. 

It  is  sometimes  objected  that  rural  people  do  not  de- 
sire the  teacher  to  visit  their  homes,  or  to  assume  the 
Method  of  ap-  position   of   leadership   among  them, 

proach  It  is  said  that  the  teacher  is  employed 

to  teach  the  school  and  that  there  his  functions  end.  This 
question  will  depend  almost  wholly  on  the  teacher's  spirit, 
tact  and  judgment.  Many  farm  homes  would  no  doubt 
find  it  something  of  a  burden  to  entertain  the  teacher, 
especially  during  the  busy  season  of  the  year,  as  formal 
"company."  It  is  probable  that  even  a  fashionable  "call" 
from  the  teacher,  just  when  the  chores  are  to  be  done  or 
the  supper  prepared,  would  not  be  highly  welcome.  Nor 
would  any  community  submit  to  being  "led"  or  "re- 
formed" in  any  professional  or  high-handed  way.  The 
teacher  whose  tact  and  judgment  will  not  save  him  from 


i6o  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

making  such  blunders  as  these  would  better  confine  his 
activities  strictly  to  the  school. 

But  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  people  everywhere, 
and  nowhere  more  than  among  those  on  the  farms,  re- 
True  friendship  ^P°"^  ^°  *^^^  friendliness  and  the 
sure  to  meet  spirit  of  comradeship.  Let  the  teacher 

response  approach  the  homes  of  his  patrons,  not 

in  the  spirit  of  professionalism  but  in  the  spirit  of  true 
friendship  and  the  desire  to  get  and  give  on  the  common 
level  of  coworkers  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  school  and 
community ;  there  will  then  be  no  lack  of  cordiality.  Let 
him  really  become  a  member  of  the  community  in  spirit 
and  deed,  showing  a  knowledge  of  its  needs  and  condi- 
tions ;  there  will  then  be  no  trouble  about  his  position  of 
leadership.  For  this  will  be  granted  to  him  by  common 
consent,  and  will  be  accompanied  by  quick  responsiveness 
and  ready  appreciation. 

A  teacher  in  an  Iowa  rural  district  put  this  principle  to 
test  in  a  very  concrete  way.  She  had  recently  begun  her 
A  practical  test  school  in  a  new  community,  and  had 

of  helpfulness  her  boarding-place  near  the  home  of 

three  of  her  pupils,  whose  mother  had  the  care  of  a  large 
household.  No  help  was  to  be  had  in  this  home  and  the 
mother  was  often  overworked.  One  evening  threshers 
came,  and  the  mother  sighed  as  she  thought  of  the  break- 
fast to  get  and  the  children  to  prepare  for  school.  Imag- 
ine her  surprise  the  next  morning  when,  as  she  entered 
the  kitchen  before  it  was  yet  light,  to  take  up  the  day's 
work,  a  knock  came  at  the  door,  and  a  young  woman 
decked  in  a  large  kitchen  apron  said,  "I  am  the  new 
teacher.  I  knew  you  had  threshers  and  wondered 
whether  you  wouldn't  let  me  help  start  the  day's  work. 
I  know  how  to  cook."    When  the  teacher  left  three  hours 


TEACHER   AND    COMMUNITY  i6i 

later  to  prepare  for  school,  the  day's  work  was  well  under 
way,  and  she  had  won  for  herself  a  secure  place  in  the 
friendship  and  regard  of  that  household. 

This  is  a  commonplace  incident  it  is  true,  and  would  be 
unimportant  were  it  not  for  the  suggestion  and  promise 
Th  t  h  r  be-  ^*  contains.  This  teacher  has  now 
comes  one  of  the  been  for  several  years  in  the  same 
community  school,  and  is  a  welcome  guest  and 

friend  in  every  home  in  the  community.  She  is  invited, 
even  during  the  summer  vacation  time,  to  the  various  so- 
cial functions  of  the  neighborhood,  and  often  comes  from 
her  own  home  some  distance  away  to  visit  among  her 
friends  of  the  school  community.  Her  influence  has  been 
felt  in  every  home  she  has  entered,  and  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
greatly  increased  efficiency  of  the  school.  And,  inciden- 
tally, her  own  salary  has  been  greatly  advanced.  What 
this  one  teacher  has  accomplished  in  winning  her  way  into 
the  hearts  and  lives  of  her  school  people  can  be  done  by  all 
other  teachers,  who  are  willing  to  take  the  trouble,  and 
who  know  how.  Responsiveness  and  cooperation  are 
ready  waiting  for  every  rural  teacher  who  is  able  to  com- 
mand it  by  worthy  qualities  of  leadership  in  himself. 

The  relations  which  every  teacher  sustains  to  the  public 
extend  also  to  his  standards  of  conduct.  And  whatever 
-,.  ,     ,  may  be  the  convictions  of  the  teacher 

standards  of  on  social  or  moral  questions,  the  judg- 

conduct  ment  of  the  community  is  to  be  taken 

into  account.  In  some  communities,  attending  dances  and 
card  parties  is  looked  on  as  highly  questionable  or  even 
wholly  immoral.  In  other  places  these  things  are  consid- 
ered unobjectionable,  or  at  least  permissible.  Some  com- 
munities expect  the  teacher  to  attend  the  local  church  and 
take  some  part  in  its  activities,  while  others  have  no  such 


i62  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

custom.  It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  lay  down  any  fixed 
rule  for  teachers  to  follow  in  such  matters.  The  prin- 
ciple, however,  is  clear  that  the  teacher  should  not  violate 
the  community's  sense  of  propriety  on  social  or  moral 
questions.  This  is  to  say,  that  the  teacher,  no  matter 
what  his  own  convictions,  should  not  do  things  which  the 
people  believe  and  teach  their  children  are  wrong.  For, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  the  teacher  can  not  separate  his 
private  life  from  his  public  influence.  And  he  has  no 
right  to  offend  the  convictions  of  his  patrons.  Par- 
ticularly should  the  teacher  set  no  example  which  may  not 
safely  be  followed  by  his  pupils.  Where  there  is  the  least 
question  of  right  and  wrong  involved,  the  decision  should 
always  fall  on  the  safe  side.  Certainly  boys  will  be  de- 
prived of  no  advantage  if  they  are  not  led  by  the  teacher's 
exarhple  to  play  cards  and  smoke,  and  girls  will  suffer  no 
loss  of  accomplishment  if  they  are  not  led  through  imi- 
tation of  a  teacher  to  attend  public  dances.  None  will  ob- 
ject if  the  teacher  refrains  from  doing  the  things  that  are 
questioned,  while  some  may  be  offended  or  led  astray  if 
he  does  them. 

All  this  does  not  mean  that  the  teacher  should  cater 
to  every  whim  of  the  community,  and  have  no  convictions 
The  teacher  should  °/  his  own.  It  rather  means  that  he 
not  offend  commu-  should  conform  to  the  community 
nity  standards  standard  where  no  question  of  con- 

viction is  involved,  or  where  the  community  standard  is 
higher  than  his  standard.  It  need  hardly  be  argued  that 
a  teacher  should  never  lower  his  standards  or  violate  his 
convictions  in  order  to  meet  standards  beneath  his  own. 

The  point  of  view  presented  in  this  chapter  may  be  ob- 
jected to  by  some  who  say  that  teaching  is  a  business 
proposition,  and  that  the  teacher  is  paid  simply  for  in- 


TEACHER   AND    COMMUNITY  163 

struction  in  the  schoolroom.  He  can  not  be  expected,  it 
may  be  argued,  to  extend  his  service  and  influence  to  the 
community  outside  the  school.  From  the  legal  point  of 
view  this  claim  will  be  frankly  granted.  Whether  one 
shall  take  the  legal  point  of  view  instead  of  the  one  here 
presented  will  depend  wholly  on  his  philosophy  of  life. 

If  the  idea  of  service  and  the  investment  of  influence 
does  not  appeal  to  one,  he  will  be  unconvinced,  and  believe 

_,     ,      ,  that  the  teacher  owes  the  community 

The  legal  versus 

the  social  point  only  the  work  of  the  schoolroom. 
of  view  jf   jjg    (jQes   ^q^   believe   that    every 

great  work  well  done  reflects  its  greatness  on  the 
worker,  he  will  differ  from  our  conclusions.  If  his 
social  code  is  that  one  should  do  only  what  one  is  paid  for 
doing,  then  he  will  combat  our  position.  But  if  one  be- 
lieves that  no  worker  can  afford  to  put  less  than  his  best 
powers  into  his  work ;  if  he  looks  on  the  chance  for  help- 
ful service  as  one  of  the  opportunities  of  life;  if  he  is 
convinced  that  the  richest  rewards  and  fullest  develop- 
ment come  from  the  most  complete  giving  of  self  to  its 
task,  then  he  can  not  be  satisfied  with  the  mere  legal 
view  of  the  teacher's  relations  to  the  school. 

Which  is  the  better  philosophy  of  life?     On  which 
would  the  teacher  better  plan  his  career  ? 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  How  far  and  in  what  sense  does  the  teacher  belong 
to  the  community  outside  of  school  hours  ? 

2.  Should  a  teacher  ordinarily  participate  in  neighbor- 
hood social  affairs  that  take  his  time  and  keep  him  up 
late  during  the  school  week?  A  teacher  once  remarked 
that  she  thought  one  ought  not  to  be  required  to  teach 


l64  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

next  day  after  attending  a  dance.     What  do  you  think 
about  it  ? 

3.  Is  there  any  danger  from  a  teacher  going  into  a 
community  as  a  "reformer,"  instead  of  as  a  friend  and 
helper?  (Do  not  most  people  resent  being  "reformed" 
and  "elevated"?) 

4.  Have  you  ever  known  teachers  to  lose  their  influ- 
ence by  being  drawn  into  a  neighborhood  feud?  How 
can  such  difficulty  be  avoided? 

5.  Do  you  believe  that  teachers  should  visit  the  homes 
of  the  pupils  when  not  especially  invited  ?  What  caution 
need  be  observed  in  such  a  procedure?  If  "home  project" 
work  is  being  carried  out,  does  this  open  the  way  for  the 
teacher  ? 

6.  Is  the  teacher  under  any  obligations  to  use  time 
prior  to  the  opening  of  the  term  in  familiarizing  himself 
with  conditions  in  the  community?  Do  you  think,  that 
in  general,  the  chapter  makes  of  the  teacher  too  much  of 
a  missionary?  If  so,  make  a  statement  of  your  own 
thought  of  what  should  constitute  the  teacher's  relation 
to  the  community. 

7.  How  far  is  the  teacher  to  assume  responsibility  for 
the  standards  and  social  conduct  of  his  pupils  outside  the 
school  ? 

8.  Will  you  attempt  to  formulate  what  you  think 
should  be  a  teacher's  "philosophy  of  life,"  as  mentioned 
near  the  close  of  the  chapter? 


CHAPTER  XI 


ORGANIZATION 


The  rural  teacher  has  three  great  problems  confronting 
him,  while  the  town  or  city  teacher  has  but  two.  For 
every  school,  no  matter  whether  large  or  small,  whether 
in  city  or  country,  requires  that  three  things  shall  be  done 
for  it:  it  must  (i)  be  organized,  (2)  managed,  and  (3) 
taught.  The  rural  teacher  has  all  three  of  these  prob- 
lems to  meet;  the  town  teacher  has  but  the  last  two. 
For  in  the  town  school  the  superintendent  and  principal 
assume  full  responsibility  for  the  organization  of  the 
school.  The  teacher  has  but  to  see  to  the  management 
and  teaching  of  his  room. 

And,  indeed,  the  city  teacher  is  not  fully  responsible 
even  for  the  management  and  teaching  of  his  school.  For 
The  rural  teacher  *^^  superintendent  and  principal  are 
meets  difficulties       always  at  hand  to  offer  suggestions 

'^^  and  advice,   and  to  them  the  more 

difficult  problems  can  be  referred.  The  rural  teacher 
has  only  himself  to  depend  on.  For  the  help  that 
can  be  rendered  by  the  board  is  negligible,  and  the 
county  superintendent  is  too  far  away  and  his  visits  are 
too  rare  to  be  of  immediate  assistance  when  needed.  In 
the  consolidated  rural  school  the  difficulties  of  organiza- 
tion are,  of  course,  greatly  reduced.    But  the  daily  prob- 

165 


i66  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

lems  of  the  district  school  must  all  be  met  by  the  rural 
teacher  as  they  arise,  and  on  the  basis  of  his  own  judg- 
ment. To  be  successful  the  rural  teacher  must  therefore 
have  a  ready  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  principles 
underlying  the  three  great  fields  of  problems  connected 
with  his  work — he  must  understand  clearly  the  organiza- 
tion, the  management  and  the  teaching  of  the  rural  school. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  to  organize  a  school  is  to 
make  it  ready  to  run ;  that  is,  to  prepare  it  to  do  its  work. 
What  it  is  to  or-  When  the  pupils  assemble  on  the  first 
ganize  a  school  day  of  the  term,  they  do  not  constitute 

a  school,  but  are  rather  a  crowd — so  many  individuals, 
each  waiting  to  be  assigned  to  his  proper  place  and  work. 
They  are  like  the  wheels  and  pinions  of  a  watch  which 
have  not  yet  been  fitted  together.  Each  pupil  must  be 
made  a  member  of  a  grade  and  certain  classes,  have 
studies  assigned,  be  fitted  into  a  certain  routine  and  regu- 
lations, and  have  definite  portions  of  the  day  set  apart 
for  study  and  recitations.  When  this  all  has  been  suc- 
cessfully accomplished,  the  school  is  organized ;  it  is  ready 
to  run.  Every  wheel  is  in  its  place,  and  the  whole  ma- 
chine can  be  set  in  motion. 

Stated  more  in  detail,  it  may  be  said  that  in  organizing 
a  school  it  (i)  must  be  divided  into  grades  and  classes 
What  organization  suited  to  the  age  and  advancement  of 
must  accomplish  the  pupils ;  (2)  it  must  be  determined 
what  studies  each  pupil  shall  take,  and  the  order  in  which 
they  shall  be  pursued;  (3)  a  program  of  daily  recitation 
and  study  must  be  formulated ;  (4)  a  routine  for  calling, 
dismissing  classes,  moving  the  school,  etc.,  must  be  de- 
cided on  and  put  into  operation;  (5)  the  regulations,  or 
rules  under  which  the  school  is  to  run  must  be  determined 


ORGANIZATION  167 

and  put  into  effect.  When  all  this  has  been  successfully 
worked  out,  the  remaining  problems  will  have  to  do 
chiefly  with  the  management  and  teaching  of  the  school. 
But  until  the  important  questions  of  organization  are  suc- 
cessfully solved,  there  is  no  possibility  of  success  in  the 
other  lines  of  the  teacher's  work. 

The  first  day  of  the  term  is  the  most  important  day  in 
matters  of  school  organization.  This  is  true  because  first 
Importance  of  impressions  are  the  most  lasting  ones, 

right  beginnings  The  children  come  to  school  on  the 
opening  day  alert  and  curious,  highly  susceptible  to  im- 
pressions from  the  teacher  and  the  school.  All  is  antici- 
pation and  speculation.  Every  movement  made  by  the 
new  teacher  is  watched  and  every  word  noted.  At  inter- 
missions and  on  the  way  home  the  teacher  and  his 
methods  are  discussed ;  at  the  farm  supper-table  the  new 
teacher  and  the  school  are  the  sole  topic  of  conversation,, 
and  the  impressions  formed  by  the  children  and  carried 
to  their  homes  soon  become  neighborhood  property.  Bad 
impressions  given  out  the  first  day  will  require  weeks  or 
months  of  high-grade  service  to  overcome  them,  while 
good  impressions  at  once  become  to  the  teacher  a  source 
of  power  and  influence  both  in  the  school  and  the  com- 
munity. 

The  teacher  must  come  to  the  first  day,  therefore,  with 
as  full  information  as  possible  of  the  problems  to  be  met. 
Preparation  for  the  ^^^  with  plans  carefully  matured  for 
opening  day  the  organization  and  management  of 

the  school.  The  first  day  must  be  a  success.  Nothing 
must  be  left  to  chance.  The  teacher  must  show  no  inde- 
cision, hesitancy  or  doubt  in  forming  the  classes,  assign- 
ing the  work,  initiating  the  program,  or  doing  any  of  the 


i68  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

many  other  things  necessary  in  starting  the  school.  He 
must  be  fully  in  command  of  the  situation  from  the  first 
moment,  and  neither  falter  nor  blunder. 

This  will  require  thought,  planning  and  preparation. 
A  recent  visit  to  the  principal  of  a  large  high  school  a 
week  before  the  opening  of  the  fall  term  found  him  busy 
at  work  in  his  office.  He  said,  "I  shall  need  to  work 
here  every  day  all  this  week  in  arranging  the  organization 
of  my  school.  But  by  the  time  we  have  been  in  session 
for  fifteen  minutes  on  next  Monday  morning,  no  one 
could  tell  that  we  had  not  been  running  a  month."  This 
man  was  able  to  hold  so  large  and  responsible  a  position 
because  he  was  willing  to  give  time  and  thought  in  plan- 
ning and  carrying  out  his  work. 

Prior  to  the  opening  of  the  term  the  rural  teacher 
should  get  the  records  of  the  school,  and  familiarize  him- 
Work  preliminary  ^^^^  ^'^^^  ^^^  names  of  the  pupils  last 
to  organization  in  attendance,  with  what  classes  they 

were  in,  what  texts  they  studied,  how  far  they  were  ad- 
vanced in  each  branch,  and  any  other  facts  that  will  be 
helpful.  In  addition  to  this,  the  names  of  the  probable 
new  pupils  should  be  obtained,  and  an  approximation 
made  of  where  they  will  rank.  If  the  former  teacher 
can  be  consulted,  much  light  can  usually  be  gained  on  the 
matter  of  the  school's  organization.  Only  by  such  care 
and  foresight  can  the  teacher  be  ready  for  the  opening 
day,  and  make  it  a  success. 

A  matter  not  less  important  than  these  questions  of 
classification  is  that  of  the  daily  program.  Work  is  the 
Importance  of  the  ^^^^  preventive  of  mischief  and  dis- 
daily  program  order.    Idle  brains  and  idle  hands  are 

sure  to  make  trouble.  Definitely  assigned  lessons  should 
be  under  way  very  soon  after  the  first  session  opens. 


ORGANIZATION  169 

Classes  should  be  called  and  brief  recitations  carried  out 
in  a  regular  sequence.  The  efficient  teacher  will  go  to  his 
first  day  of  school  with  a  definite  program  of  recitations 
in  view.  This  program  will  probably  have  to  be  modified 
somewhat,  but  it  is  vastly  better  than  no  program,  or 
one  devised  at  random  and  on  the  spur  of  the  moment. 
While  probably  the  same  program  will  not  serve  for  any 
two  consecutive  terms,  yet  the  program  of  the  preceding 
term  is  usually  the  best  basis  on  which  to  start,  making 
whatever  changes  are  necessary  the  first  day,  and  con- 
tinuing these  modifications  until  the  program  fits  the  new 
school. 

With  such  preparation  for  the  first  day,  brief  opening 
exercises  can  be  had,  the  names  of  the  pupils  taken,  a 
tentative  classification  effected,  lessons  assigned,  and  reci- 
tations begun  within  the  first  half-hour.  This  is  as  it 
should  be.  To  take  half  a  day  to  get  started  is  not  only 
a  waste  of  time,  but  is  demoralizing  to  the  school,  and 
shows  the  teacher  to  be  lacking  either  in  ability  to  organ- 
ize and  manage,  or  devoid  of  the  interest  in  his  work 
which  should  prompt  better  preparation  for  the  opening 
of  the  term. 

It  is  easier  to  form  than  reform.  The  pupils  come  to 
school  on  the  first  day  expecting  that  the  new  teacher  will 
The  initiation  of  a  ^^^^  some  plans  of  his  own  to  intro- 
definite  policy  duce  and  they  are  usually  very  ready 

to  cooperate.  Anything  that  is  reasonable  in  the  way  of 
a  school  routine  or  regulations  can  be  put  into  effect  at 
the  beginning  without  difficulty.  But  let  the  teacher  come 
without  definite  plans  for  these  things,  let  the  movement 
of  classes  and  the  calling  and  dismissing  of  school  be 
haphazard,  let  the  regulations  be  indefinite  or  poorly  car- 
ried out  for  a  few  days  or  a  week,  and  the  habits  and 


I70  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

standards  of  the  school  have  become  more  or  less  set  in 
the  wrong  direction.  And  it  then  often  causes  friction 
and  requires  punishment  to  accomplish  what  would  have 
been  taken  as  a  matter  of  course  at  the  beginning  of  the 
term.  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure, 
and  a  little  effective  organization  is  better  than  much  re- 
organization. 

The  school  routine  is  one  of  the  most  important  matters 
connected  with  organization.    By  school  routine  is  meant 

the  various  movements  and  activities 
The  school  routine    j^  ^^j^^  ^^^  ^^^j^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^j^^^^g 

participate  together.  Illustrations  of  routine  are,  calling 
and  dismissing  the  school,  the  passing  of  classes,  the  dis- 
tribution of  wraps,  materials,  etc.  All  these  things  should 
follow  a  set  routine,  be  done  in  the  same  way  over  and 
over  until  they  become  thoroughly  automatic  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils.  They  must  become  a  part  of  the  school 
habit,  so  well  fixed  that  they  "do  themselves."  To  this 
end  the  routine  adopted  should  be  simple  and  natural. 
A  complicated  series  of  signals  for  calling  a  class  to  recite 
is  unnecessary,  wastes  time,  and  is  difficult  to  follow. 

A  cumbersome  system  of  signals,  together  with  lack  of 
executive  ability  was  responsible  for  the  following  state 
An  impossible  ^^  affairs  in  one  school.    The  teacher 

routine  called,    "Third   reader   class!"     One 

alert  boy  turned  with  his  feet  out  in  the  aisle.  The  teacher 
continued,  "Ready!"  The  boy  stood  up;  several  others 
turned  ready  to  rise.  "Stand!"  Several  started  to  the 
recitation  seat.  "Pass!"  Those  who  started  first  had  by 
this  time  reached  their  places,  and  the  rest  came  straggling 
toward  the  front.  "Be  seated!"  concluded  the  teacher, 
but  nearly  all  had  dropped  down  on  the  benches  as  they 
came  up,  and  only  a  few  were  left  to  obey  the  order. 


ORGANIZATION  171 

What  folly!  And  what  injustice  to  a  school!  The  sig- 
nals given  for  moving  classes  and  the  like  should  be  the 
fewest  and  simplest  possible,  and  then  should  be  obeyed 
to  the  letter  until  obedience  has  become  a  habit.  Com- 
mands that  are  disregarded  are  a  constant  training  in 
carelessness  and  disobedience  to  duty,  and  always  weaken 
the  teacher's  authority. 

The  regulations  of  the  school  are  not  less  important 
than  its  routine.  No  set  of  rules  can  be  made  to  cover 
The  regulations  to  ^^^  *^^  questions  of  conduct  that  will 
be  adopted  arise  in  the  school.     Indeed  an  arbi- 

trary list  of  rules  made  and  announced  at  the  opening  of 
a  term  is  worse  than  useless,  for  it  tends  to  antagonize  the 
pupils  and  even  to  suggest  misdemeanors  that,  otherwise, 
they  might  not  think  of.  A  list  of  the  rules  devised  by 
an  old  New  England  schoolmaster  contained  seventy-five 
specific  prohibitions  or  commands.  The  story  is  told  that, 
on  looking  about  the  grounds  one  day,  he  discovered  a 
pile  of  old  bricks  that  had  lain  undisturbed  for  no  one 
knew  how  long.  But  the  schoolmaster,  desiring  to  make 
sure  that  he  had  omitted  nothing,  went  back  to  the  list  of 
rules  and  wrote  as  the  seventy-sixth,  "It  is  strictly  for- 
bidden that  any  boy  shall  throw  bricks  at  the  chimney." 
And  tradition  tells  that  the  chimney,  which  had  stood  un- 
molested during  many  years,  was  battered  down  within 
a  week. 

In  spite  of  the  possible  misuse  of  rules,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  some  regulations  understood  and 
obeyed  in  the  school.  It  is  probably 
best  to  have  only  a  general  under- 
standing at  the  opening  of  the  term,  like  Nelson's  famous, 
"England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty !"  Similarly 
the  school  expects  every  pupil  to  do  his  part  toward 


172  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

making  the  school  a  success.  From  this  platform  as  a 
standpoint,  various  regulations  can  be  made  and  the  ne- 
cessity for  them  shown  as  occasion  arises.  For  example, 
the  question  of  whispering  is  sure  to  arise  early  in  the 
term,  but  better  to  take  up  the  question  when  it  does  arise 
than  to  start  out  with  rules  on  it.  The  matter  of  leaving 
the  seats  on  various  errands  about  the  room  will  need 
to  be  decided,  but  it  should  be  decided  when  it  presents 
itself.  The  only  danger  at  this  point  is  in  letting  such 
questions  get  the  start  before  they  are  taken  up.  The 
abuse  of  a  privilege  will  rapidly  grow  into  a  habit,  and 
misused  privilege  comes  to  be  looked  on  as  a  right. 

No  school  is  well  organized  until  the  matter  of  classic- 
cation  has  been  carefully  worked  out.     To  classify  a 

Principles  of  rural-  ^^^°°^  ^^^°  P^^^^  ^^^  P^P"^  ^"  ^^^'' 
school  classifi-  proper  divisions,  grades  and  classes. 

'^**^°"  It  is   impossible  to   lay   down   fixed 

rules  for  the  classifying  of  rural  schools,  since  they  vary 
so  greatly  in  size,  advancement  and  curriculum.  Yet  a 
general  outline  may  be  given  which  will  serve  as  a  basis 
to  be  modified  as  required  by  each  individual  school. 

One-room  rural  schools  can  never  be  classified  as  rig- 
idly as  town  or  consolidated  schools.  This  arises  first 
of  all  from  the  fact  that  in  very  few  district  schools  are 
all  the  different  grades  represented.  Particularly  is  this 
true  in  the  smaller  schools,  which  often  consist  of  not 
more  than  eight  or  ten  pupils.  In  consolidated  schools 
the  classification  will  be  worked  out  much  as  in  towns  and 
cities.  In  the  average  district  school  of  small  size,  not 
more  than  four  or  five  of  the  eight  grades  constituting 
the  full  rural-school  course  will  usually  be  represented. 
Proper  classification  is  also  rendered  difficult  because  of 
the  lax  methods  of  promotion  obtaining  in  most  of  the 


ORGANIZATION  173 

rural  schools.  Pupils  are  allowed  to  become  very  irregu- 
lar in  their  studies,  far  ahead  in  some  and  behind  in 
others.  Further,  irregular  attendance  often  makes  it  a 
hard  matter  to  keep  the  classification  even  and  regular 
after  it  has  once  been  properly  arranged. 

A  school  of  the  usual  type  which  has  all  the  eight  years 
represented  would,  of  course,  consist  of  eight  grades,  one 

_,       ^     ,     -  for  each  year.     The  classification  of 

The  standard  ,         ,      /  ,  .  ,     , 

school  classifi-  the  school  together  with  the  studies  to 

*^^*'°^  be  pursued,  would  then  be  somewhat 

as  follows: 

First  school  year — Primer  and  First  Reader.  Language, 
numbers,  nature  study,  music  taught  orally.  Hand- 
work, drawing,  writing. 

Second  school  year — Second  Reader.  Other  first  year 
studies  continued  orally,  with  increasing  emphasis  on 
hand-work  and  nature  study. 

Third  school  year — Third  Reader  (first  half)  with  sup- 
plementary readings.  Elementary  arithmetic  text, 
music  reader.  Pen  and  ink.  Language  and  nature 
study,  including  hygiene,  continued  orally,  hand-work. 

Fourth  school  year — Third  Reader  (second  half)  with 
supplementary  readings.  Elementary  arithmetic,  ele- 
mentary geography,  including  nature  study,  spelling- 
book,  music  reader,  elementary  language  book,  writing 
and  drawing,  hand-work. 

Fifth  school  year — Fourth  Reader  (first  half)  with  sup- 
plementary readings.  Elementary  arithmetic  (com- 
pleted), elementary  geography  (completed)  including 
elements  of  agriculture,  oral  hygiene,  language  book, 
music  reader,  writing  and  drawing,  spelling-book, 
hand-work. 

Si^th  school  year — Fourth  Reader  (second  half)   with 


174  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

supplementary  readings.  Advanced  geography,  history 
stories,  complete  arithmetic,  elementary  physiology 
language  book,  spelling-book,  music,  writing  and  draw- 
ing, hand-work,  elementary  agriculture. 
Seventh  school  year — Fifth  Reader  (first  half)  with  sup- 
plementary readings.  Complete  arithmetic,  language 
and  composition,  geography,  history,  physiology,  spell- 
ing-book, elementary  agriculture,  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  music,  drawing. 
Eighth  school  year — Fifth  Reader  (completed)  with  sup- 
plementary readings.  Supplementary  classics,  arithme- 
tic, history,  geography,  elementary  grammar  and  com- 
position, agriculture,  manual  training,  domestic  science, 
music,  drawing. 

As  the  rural  schools  are  at  present  organized,  reading 
is  probably  the  branch  most  commonly  taken  as  a  basis  of 
The  basis  of  classification.  Upon  this  basis,  if  a  pu- 

classification  pil  comes  to  school  ready  to  begin  the 

Fourth  Reader,  he  should  be  entering  on  his  fifth  year  at 
school,  and  should  be  pursuing  the  other  studies  listed  for 
the  fifth  year,  providing  that  he  is  even  in  his  classification. 
Similarly,  if  he  comes  ready  to  begin  the  Third  Reader, 
he  is  to  be  classified  in  the  third  year,  and  should  regularly 
have  the  studies  belonging  to  this  year.  If  he  is  not  even 
in  his  classification,  as  is  often  the  case,  it  will,  of  course, 
be  necessary  to  allow  him  to  have  studies  belonging  in 
two  or  more  years.  The  course  of  study  must  not  be  al- 
lowed to  hamper  the  pupil's  development.  It  should, 
however,  be  the  constant  endeavor  of  the  teacher  to  bring 
up  the  subjects  that  are  behind,  even  at  the  expense  of 
moving  more  slowly  in  those  that  are  ahead,  and  in  thia 
way  even  up  the  classification. 


ORGANIZATION  175 

The  classification  here  presented  is,  with  slight  modifi- 
cations, that  in  general  use.  But  every  teacher  should 
become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
classification  de-  course  of  study  and  system  of  classifi- 
manded  of  the  cation   in   his   county   or   state.     He 

should  know  offhand  such  points  as 
the  following  whenever  he  requires  to  use  them  in  classi- 
fying his  particular  school : 

(i)  The  studies,  books  and  material  for  each  school 
year. 

(2)  The  studies  to  be  carried  together  at  the  same 
time. 

(3)  How  long  each  study  is  to  be  pursued,  and  when  it 
is  to  be  completed. 

(4)  When  the  elementary  and  when  the  advanced  text 
in  each  subject  is  to  be  introduced. 

(5)  How  many  classes  are  to  be  formed  in  each  gen- 
eral subject,  such  as  arithmetic,  language  or  reading. 

Only  when  the  teacher  is  able  to  answer  these  questions 

accurately  and  quickly  is  he  capable  of  classifying  the 

^      ^.        ^    .  school  correctly,  or  of  telling  what  is 

Questions  to  be  "^       .    .    .  ... 

met  in  classifi-  wrong  when  a  pupil  is  irregular  in  his 

*^^**°'^  classification.     For  example,  if  John 

Smith  appears  on  the  opening  day  with  an  advanced 
arithmetic  in  which  he  has  reached  square  root,  a  Fifth 
Reader  which  he  has  not  yet  begun,  an  elementary  lan- 
guage book,  and  a  history  that  he  has  been  over,  but  no 
geography  or  physiology,  manifestly  he  is  irregular  in  his 
classification.  The  teacher  must  know  precisely  in  what 
this  irregularity  consists,  and  how  to  set  at  work  to  rem- 
edy it.  Likewise  if  Susan  Jones  brings  a  new  Third 
Reader,  and  along  with  this  an  elementary  geography 
and  an  elementary  arithmetic,  but  no  language  book,  the 


176  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

teacher  must  know  at  once  whether  these  are  the  right 
books  to  go  together.  It  is  ignorance  of  just  such  ques- 
tions as  these  that  accounts  for  the  poor  classification 
found  in  many  rural  schools,  and  for  much  of  the  poor 
work  that  results. 

Closely  related  to  the  classification  of  the  school  is  the 
matter  of  the  daily  program.  This  is  one  of  the  rural 
teacher's  most  puzzling  problems,  and  a  large  measure  of 
his  success  depends  on  his  ability  to  make  and  follow  a 
good  program.  The  school  in  which  the  pupils  do  not 
know  precisely  what  work  is  to  be  done  and  what  recita- 
tions are  heard  at  every  hour  of  the  day  is  a  poorly  organ- 
ized school  and  its  slipshod  methods  show  lack  of  execu- 
tive ability  in  the  teacher. 

The  program  of  the  district  school  can  not  be  organized 
as  definitely  and  closely  as  that  of  the  graded  school,  yet 
Principles  under-  there  are  certain  principles  underlying 
lying  the  program  the  making  of  the  program  that  will 
hold  for  all  schools.  And  the  fact  that  the  rural  teacher 
is  so  crowded  for  time  makes  it  all  the  more  necessary 
that  the  program  be  well  devised. 

It  is  evident  that  the  hardest  or  most  important  studies 
should  be  placed  in  the  best  parts  of  the  day,  that  is  early 
in  the  forenoon  and  afternoon  sessions.  As  most  of  our 
schools  are  now  organized,  the  most  important  branch  for 
the  lower  grades  is  reading.  This  should  therefore  be 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  session,  or  as  near  the  be- 
ginning as  possible.  For  the  more  advanced  classes, 
arithmetic  or  language  may  be  taken  as  the  hardest  study, 
and  hence  be  given  the  best  position.  Other  studies 
should  be  arranged  in  order  of  difficulty  in  gaining  atten- 
tion and  interest. 


ORGANIZATION  177 

It  is  difficult  in  a  school  which  is  irregular  in  its  classi- 
fication to  arrange  a  program  so  that  every  pupil  may 
The  sequence  ha\G  time  to  prepare  for  each  suc- 

of  studies  cessive     recitation.        The     program 

should,  if  possible,  provide  for  an  alternation  of  study  and 
recitation  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  studies  each  lesson 
shortly  before  he  recites  it.  This  is  not  so  necessary  in 
the  higher  grades;  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  may 
even  prepare  for  an  early  morning  recitation  before  the 
close  of  school  the  preceding  day,  or  in  the  evening  at 
home. 

Care  needs  to  be  exercised  that  certain  lines  of  study, 
such  as  arithmetic,  geography,  agriculture,  or  any  other 
The  distribution  subject,  do  not  receive  more  than  their 
of  time  just  share  of  time.     A  teacher  who 

has  a  fad  for  number  work,  nature  study,  or  any  other 
branch,  has  a  tendency  to  emphasize  this  subject  at  the  ex- 
pense of  others.  Also,  poor  classification  may  sometimes 
result  in  more  classes  in  some  subjects  than  they  deserve. 
One  school  of  fourteen  pupils  had  seven  classes  in  spell- 
ing, when  it  ought  to  have  had  but  two.  Another  had  five 
classes  in  arithmetic,  when  there  should  have  been  but 
three. 

If  a  school  is  poorly  classified  in,  say,  its  higher  grades, 
this  has  a  tendency  to  multiply  the  number  of  classes  for 
Classes  crowded  ^^^se  grades,  and  so  give  them  more 
out  than  their  just  proportion  of   time. 

Likewise  if  a  teacher  enjoys  better  the  work  of  either  the 
higher  grades  or  the  lower  grades,  there  is  a  temptation 
to  give  more  than  its  rightful  share  of  time  to  the  more 
pleasant  work  to  the  injury  of  the  other.  Sometimes  the 
program  has  so  many  classes  that  some  of  them  get  shut 


178  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

out  occasionally.  In  case  this  should  occur  it  is  usually 
best  to  leave  out  some  of  the  more  advanced  w^ork  rather 
than  that  of  the  beginners.  A  still  better  plan  if  the 
program  is  too  badly  crowded  is  to  hear  some  of  the 
more  advanced  classes  on  alternate  days. 

Most  rural  schools  have  too  many  recitations.  The 
average  in  many  counties  reaches  nearly  thirty  a  day.  Of 
course  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  teach  this  number  of 
classes  and  do  them  justice.  The  largest  number  of 
classes  that  should  be  attempted  in  any  school  is  about 
twenty  a  day. 

Some  of  the  chief  causes  producing  the  multiplicity  of 
classes  are  as  follows:  (i)  Poor  correlation  and  classi- 
Causes  producing  fication.  Not  infrequently  separate 
too  many  classes  classes  in  spelling  could  just  as  well 
be  put  together.  Separate  classes  in  arithmetic  are  often 
allowed  when  their  work  is  only  a  few  weeks  or  a  month 
or  two  apart.  And  so  with  the  other  studies.  The 
teacher  should  know  how  many  years  are  to  be  put  on 
a  given  text,  and  then  try  to  arrange  the  distance  between 
the  classes  on  this  basis;  e.  g.,  three  years  are  usually 
to  be  devoted  to  the  complete  arithmetic.  Classes  in  arith- 
metic should  not  therefore  be  nearer  together  than  one- 
third  of  the  text,  even  when  all  grades  are  represented 
in  the  school.  (2)  Irregular  attendance.  Not  infre- 
quently children  are  kept  out  of  school  to  work  for  a  few 
weeks,  and  then  it  is  expected  that  new  classes  shall  be 
formed  for  them  on  their  return.  This  is  unfair  and 
should  not  be  allowed.  Parents  should  be  urged  to  keep 
their  children  in  school  regularly,  but  in  no  case  should 
the  interests  of  the  whole  school  be  made  to  suffer 
through  starting  new  classes  for  the  irregular  pupils.  (3) 
Attendance  of  children  below  school  age.    Many  states 


ORGANIZATION  17$ 

allow  their  children  to  enter  school  at  five  years  of  age. 
This  is  probably  a  full  year  too  early.  In  spite  of  this  fact, 
however,  there  is  hardly  a  rural  district  in  most  states  in 
which  children  are  not  sent  to  school  before  reaching  the 
minimum  age.  This  should  never  be  allowed.  It  is  bad 
for  the  child,  and  usually  results  in  the  necessity  for  or- 
ganizing new  classes  for  these  beginners.  If  the  board 
will  not  exclude  children  under  age,  the  teacher  should 
at  once  report  to  the  county  superintendent,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  see  that  the  school  laws  are  obeyed  in  his  county. 
The  proper  correlation  of  subjects  in  teaching  will  do 
much  to  render  unnecessary  the  multiplicity  of  classes 

^       ,  ^.  found  in  many  rural  schools.     Spell- 

Correlation  a  rem-    .  ^        ,  ,  X 

edy  for  multiplicity  mg  can  often  be  taught  more  effect- 
of  classes  ively  in  the  regular  work  of  other 

classes  than  in  any  other  way.  Language  work  and  com- 
position find  their  best  basis  in  nature  study,  geography, 
hygiene,  agriculture,  and  similar  practical  subjects  of  the 
course,  and  can  be  so  combined  with  them  as  to  render 
the  teaching  of  both  more  effective.  The  arithmetic  les- 
son may  often  be  based  on  the  work  going  on  in  manual 
training  or  domestic  science,  and  time  saved  for  other 
work.  Indeed,  the  principle  of  correlation,  already  sug- 
gested in  a  former  chapter,  will,  if  properly  applied,  re- 
lieve the  overcrowding  of  the  program  and  increase  the 
efficiency  of  the  teaching. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

I.  Is  it  reasonably  safe  to  concede  that  a  teacher  who 
has  made  a  success  of  a  country  school  will  be  successful 
in  the  same  grade  of  work  in  a  town  school?   Is  ther« 


l8o  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

any  difference  in  standards  to  be  taken  into  account  ?    In 
methods  ? 

2.  Have  you  observed  schools  that  were  unsuccessful 
because  of  faulty  organization  ?  Can  you  point  out  where 
the  difficulty  lay? 

3.  Have  you  observed  differences  in  "first  days"  il- 
lustrating the  points  made  in  the  chapter?  What  is  your 
own  plan  for  opening  day  ?  How  much  time  do  you  spend 
familiarizing  yourself  with  the  school  records  before  the 
terms  open. 

4.  Have  you  ever  found  the  records  left  by  a  former 
teacher  so  faulty  as  to  be  of  little  service  in  organizing 
the  new  term  ?  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  professional 
ethics  of  a  teacher  who  will  leave  defective  records? 

5.  Make  a  full  statement  of  what  you  consider  the 
best  routine  for  a  one-room  rural  school ;  that  is,  a  plan 
for  calling  and  dismissing  school,  passing  classes,  hand- 
ling wraps  and  supplies,  and  all  else  that  should  be  in- 
cluded under  the  term  routine.  Also,  discuss  what  regu- 
lations should  be  adopted  to  govern  the  conduct  in  the 
school. 

6.  Have  you  observed  that  certain  forms  of  disorder, 
such  as  whispering,  leaving  the  seats  on  errands,  etc., 
have  a  tendency  to  grow  ?  What  is  to  be  done  to  prevent 
them  from  becoming  school  nuisances? 

7.  Can  you  name,  offhand,  the  studies  and  texts  to  be 
used  in  each  grade  of  your  school  ?  If  not,  do  you  know 
where  to  go  for  such  information? 

8.  What  measures  have  you  ever  tried  to  reduce  the 
number  of  recitations  in  your  school  ?  Can  this  be  done  in 
many  rural  schools  without  injustice?  Or  is  it  an  in- 
justice to  all  for  the  teacher  to  attempt  to  teach  twenty- 
five  or  more  classes  a  day? 


CHAPTER  XII 


MANAGEMENT 


This  is  the  day  of  scientific  management.  Executive 
capacity,  or  the  ability  to  manage,  is  at  a  premium  in 
every  line  of  occupation.  In  the  business  world  almost 
fabulous  salaries  are  paid  to  those  who  are  able  success- 
fully to  direct  the  activities  of  important  commercial  en- 
terprises. These  men  do  not  themselves  make  or  sell 
goods ;  it  is  their  part  to  supply  the  best  possible  condi- 
tions under  which  goods  may  be  produced  and  sold ;  they 
are  managers.  Likewise,  in  the  educational  system,  the 
highest  honors  and  salaries  go  to  those  who  are  able  to 
act  as  managers  of  a  system  of  schools.  And  here,  as  in 
the  commercial  world,  it  is  the  business  of  the  manager 
to  supply  favorable  conditions  under  which  the  work  of 
the  organization  shall  go  on. 

In  the  rural  schools,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the 

teacher  is  the  sole  manager  of  the  school.     The  school 

-,      ,  ^     ,     ,  board  can  not  well  take  part  in  this 

Rural  teacher  s  ,  ^        , 

sole  responsibility     function,  and  the  county  supermtend- 

in  management  g^t  is  unable  to  be  of  material  assist- 

ance. The  responsibility  is  on  the  teacher  alone,  and  the 
problems  are  many  and  difficult.  The  reputation  and  suc- 
cess of  the  teacher  as  measured  by  the  general  public  are 
gaged  largely  by  his  ability  to  manage.  This  counts  with 
most  patrons  for  more  than  even  the  matter  of  organiza- 

i8i 


i82  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tion  or  teaching,  for  it  is  more  easily  understood  and 
judged.  The  classification  and  grading  of  a  school  may 
be  faulty,  its  program  poorly  planned,  or  the  methods 
employed  in  instruction  ineffective,  and  the  public  know 
little  about  it.  But  let  the  management  of  the  school 
prove  v^^eak,  let  the  teacher  fail  properly  to  control  the 
school,  or  let  his  methods  of  government  be  such  as  to 
produce  friction,  and  the  vi^hole  community  soon  know  of 
the  trouble.  If  the  school  machine  creaks  in  its  running, 
the  creaking  is  sure  to  be  heard  and  to  attract  unfavorable 
attention. 

'  We  may  organize  a  school  once  for  all  at  the  beginning 
of  a  term,  but  the  school  must  be  managed  day  after  day 
What  managing  a  ^^  long  as  it  runs.  For  no  school,  be 
school  means  it  ever  so  well  organized,  or  the  teach- 

ing ever  so  good,  will  manage  itself.  This  requires  great 
skill  and  constant  alertness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

Managing  a  school  means  much  more  than  governing 
it,  in  the  sense  of  keeping  order.  To  manage  a  school  is 
so  to  direct  it  as  to  obtain  the  largest  educational  returns 
with  the  least  possible  friction  and  waste  of  time  and 
effort.  In  a  well  managed  school  each  pupil  will  be  doing 
his  work  in  such  a  way  as  to  gain  the  greatest  good  for 
himself,  without  interfering  with  the  work  or  welfare  of 
others.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher,  as  manager  of 
the  school,  to  provide  such  conditions  that  these  results 
are  obtained. 

This  is  not  easy.  A  great  part  of  the  proverbial  weari- 
ness and  fag  of  teachers  comes  from  the  strain  of  man- 
aging the  school.  It  is  not  the  strain  of  actual  teaching, 
but  the  worry  arising  from  responsibility,  tension,  or 
conflict  in  management  that  results  in  frayed  nerves  and 
exhausted  bodies.    For  the  sake  of  efficiency  in  the  work 


MANAGEMENT  183 

of  the  school,  therefore,  and  for  his  own  welfare  and 
happiness,  as  well,  the  teacher  needs  to  master  and  put 
into  practise  the  principles  of  good  management. 

Lying  at  the  basis  of  all  successful  management  is  the 
spirit  of  cooperation.  A  school  can  not  be  forced  or 
Spirit  of  coopera-  driven  against  its  will  without  grea^ 
tion  necessary  loss  in  efficiency.   Energy  and  thought 

which  the  teacher  should  devote  to  instruction  must  be 
expended  in  compulsion.  Effort  and  attention  which 
should  be  given  by  the  pupils  to  their  studies  are  directed 
to  misdemeanors  or  resistance.  It  is  impossible  ta  gain 
good  results  while  thus  working  at  cross-purposes.  A 
spirit  of  antagonism  is  fatal  to  progress  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils  and  to  growth  and  efficiency  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  control  of  the  school 
must  be  lax  and  that  discipline  and  order  shall  fail  in 
order  to  keep  the  good-will  of  the  pupils.  On  the  con- 
trary, nothing  is  more  certain  to  forfeit  the  pupils'  respect 
and  good-will  for  a  teacher  than  weakness  and  uncer- 
tainty in  government.  Children  expect  the  teacher  to 
control  the  school,  and  hold  him  in  contempt  if  he  does 
not. 

But  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  way  this  control 

is  manifested.     One  teacher,  in  governing  the  school, 

causes     friction,     hard     feeling    and 

Cooperation  refers  antagonism:  another  teacher,  by  a 
to  the  method  of        ,.rc         ,  ^,1  ^         1         u/ • 

control  different    method,    not    only    obtams 

better  control  of  the  school,  but  also 
holds  the  good-will  and  respect  of  the  pupils.  The  dif- 
ference lies  largely  in  the  ability  of  the  second  teacher 
to  win  the  cooperation  of  the  school,  whereas  the  first 
teacher  has  to  depend  on  the  force  of  authority. 


i84  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

The  foundation  of  cooperation  is  the  realization  on 
the  part  of  both  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  that  the  school 
is  really  the  pupils'  school,  and  not  the  teacher's  school 
nor  the  board's  school.  When  once  they  come  to  see 
that  poor  work  or  wrong  behavior  in  the  school  is  harm- 
ing their  school,  and  not  the  teacher,  their  interest  in  the 
school  will  increase  and  their  attitude  toward  it  will 
change. 

The  children  can  not  be  made  to  feel  an  ownership 
in  the  school  merely  by  lecturing  to  them  about  it,  nor 
p  .     .  ,        ,  by  explaining  to  them  their  loss  when 

trol  to  come  from  things  go  wrong  in  the  school.  They 
the  school  must  arrive  at  this  idea  in  a  very  con- 

crete and  practical  way.  For  example,  the  teacher  feels 
that  certain  regulations  should  be  adopted.  In  putting 
these  regulations  into  operation,  he  must  avoid  giving 
the  impression  that  such  regulations  are  made  because  of 
any  whim  or  notion  of  the  teacher  himself.  He  should 
rather  seek  to  show  that  such  regulations  are  made  be- 
cause the  work  and  success  of  the  school  demand  them. 
Likewise,  corrections,  rebukes,  punishments,  are  not  to 
gratify  any  love  of  the  teacher  for  these  things,  but  be- 
cause the  success  of  the  school  requires  them. 

One  of  the  greatest  foes  of  cooperation  in  the  school 
is  scolding.  The  teacher  is  subject  to  many  trials  and 
The  futility  of  provocations,  and  is  often  worn  and 

scolding  fagged.      And,  says  President  Henry 

Churchill  King,  "It  is  hard  to  be  decent  when  we  are 
fagged."  The  result  is,  that  many  teachers  are  scolders, 
growing  into  the  habit  gradually,  and  finding  themselves 
in  its  grip  before  they  are  aware.  There  are  two  bad 
things  about  scolding:  one  is  that  it  arouses  antagonism 
and  renders  a  spirit  of  cooperation  impossible ;  the  other 


MANAGEMENT  185 

is,  that  it  ultimately  does  no  good.  For  children  easily  be- 
come hardened  to  faultfinding  and  criticism,  or  they  be- 
come sullen  under  their  sting,  and  accept  them  like  any 
other  disagreeable  thing  of  life,  without  taking  them  too 
seriously.  Said  one  schoolgirl,  "We  would  rather  have 
Miss  White  scold  us  for  half  an  hour  than  to  have  Miss 
Gray  look  displeased." 

It  is  a  great  accomplishment  to  be  able  to  correct,  re- 
buke or  reprove  in  a  spirit  of  entire  friendliness.  Many 
can  not  do  this.  There  are  those  who  are  unable  to  dif- 
fer with  us  even  on  matters  of  opinion  or  belief  without 
bearing  a  personal  grudge  because  of  these  differences. 
Two  neighbors  of  this  type,  one  an  ardent  Democrat  and 
the  other  as  strong  a  Republican,  were  good  friends  ex- 
cept at  the  time  of  election  campaigns,  when  they  ceased 
all  neighboring  together  and  would  hardly  speak  to  each 
other.  The  teacher  needs  to  cultivate  that  breadth  of 
personality  and  warmth  of  sympathy  that  will  enable 
him  to  correct  a  wayward  child,  even  with  great  severity 
if  necessary,  keeping  his  heart  so  warm  toward  the  cul- 
prit all  the  time  that  no  tinge  of  antagonism  creeps  in. 
One  may  learn  to  abhor  an  offense  while  he  loves  the 
offender. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  lessons  the  school  has  for 
the  child  is  the  lesson  of  obedience.  If  the  spirit  of  co- 
Good  management  operation  obtains  in  the  school, 
secures  obedience  the  child's  obedience  is  to  the 
needs  and  demands  of  the  school  itself.  These  needs 
and  demands  are  expressed  in  the  rules  and  regulations 
set  forth  by  the  teacher,  but  they  come  no  less  from 
the  necessities  of  school. 

The  term  obedience  is  here  used  not  alone  to  signify 
conformity  to  the  wishes  or  requirements  of  the  teacher, 


i86  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

but  also  to  the  regulations  and  routine  of  the  school. 
If  a  certain  set  of  signals  has  been  agreed  on  for  the  pass- 
ing of  classes,  for  calling  and  dismissing  school,  then  this 
routine  is  to  be  followed  absolutely  and  exactly.  If  cer- 
tain regulations  have  been  adopted  relative  to  whisper- 
ing, leaving  the  seats,  or  other  privileges,  then  these 
regulations  should  be  obeyed  both  in  spirit  and  in  letter. 

Rules  that  are  not  obeyed  are  far  worse  than  no  rules 
at  all,  for  they  beget  contempt  for  law  and  authority. 

.p..    ,    J.         ,  Better  a  thousand  times  a  few  simple 

Disobedience  be-  ,  .  .  ^ 

gets  contempt  regulations  well  complied  with  than 

for  law  a.  complex  set  which  can  not  be  en- 

forced. The  child  who  has  learned  in  the  school  the  les- 
son of  obedience  to  authority  and  the  rights  of  others 
has  been  given  one  of  the  most  valuable  elements  of  edu- 
cation. The  child  who  has  had  his  schooling  in  a  school 
where  the  lessons  of  obedience  were  not  learned,  has 
incorporated  in  his  education  an  element  of  weakness 
and  danger. 

The  only  way  to  learn  lessons  of  obedience  is  to  obey, 
just  as  the  only  way  to  learn  moral  truths  is  to  live  them, 
Obedience  learned  and  the  only  way  to  learn  pa- 
only  by  obeying  triotism  is  to  live  and  act  patri- 
otically. The  difference  between  theory  and  prac- 
tise in  these  things  was  well  illustrated  in  an  incident  that 
recently  occurred  in  a  certain  rural  school.  The  morning 
opening  exercises  were  being  conducted.  As  the  roll  was 
called,  each  child  responded  with  a  patriotic  verse  or  se- 
lection. A  patriotic  song  was  sung,  and  then  all  stood 
and  together  saluted  the  flag  that  hung  at  the  front  of 
the  room.  It  was  a  beautiful  exercise,  well  performed. 
But  the  trouble  was,  that  within  the  next  half-hour  an- 
archy prevailed  in  this  room  in  the  presence  of  the  flag 


MANAGEMENT  187 

that  had  so  recently  been  saluted.  Law  was  violated,  the 
rights  of  others  were  disregarded,  and  authority  was 
trampled  upon.  The  lesson  in  patriotism  was  negatived 
by  the  conduct  of  the  school.  These  children  needed, 
more  than  they  needed  anything  else,  to  learn  the  lesson 
of  obedience  to  authority. 

Good  school  management  requires  that  the  teacher  shall 
be  uniform  in  requirement  from  day  to  day.  He  must 
Good  management  "o^  to-day  tolerate  or  take  lightly  an 
requires  uniformity  offense  that  yesterday  he  took  seri- 
ously and  punished.  He  must  not  be  subject  to  moods 
and  whims,  making  the  control  of  the  school  grow  chiefly 
out  of  his  own  attitude  and  feeling.  He  must  himself 
obey  constantly  from  day  to  day  the  standards  he  has 
set  up  for  the  control  of  the  school,  and  should  no  more 
suffer  himself  to  be  lax  in  requiring  obedience  to  rules, 
regulations  and  standards,  than  he  would  suffer  his  pupils 
to  disobey  in  these  things. 

This  is  a  very  severe  demand  to  place  on  the  teacher, 
but  it  is  well  worth  striving  for.  It  is  worth  while  to  be 
able  to  live  above  one's  whims  and  moods,  to  be  equable 
and  pleasant  no  matter  how  one  feels,  and  to  be  kindly 
insistent  when  one  would  prefer  to  let  the  wrong  act  go 
by.  Such  heroic  training  of  one's  self  will  give  poise 
and  balance  to  the  character  as  will  few  other  things,  and 
will  prove  an  acquisition  well  worth  having  outside  the 
schoolroom. 

The  necessity  for  persistence  and  uniformity  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  has  been  demonstrated  to  every 
-,     ,  •  teacher  in  the  tendency  of  schools  to 

schools  to  "run  "run  down"  if  given  •  a  chance.  On 
^^'''^  starting  a  new  term,  the  teacher  be- 

gins with  certain  ideals  of  management  and  control.  For 


i88  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

a  little  time  all  goes  well,  but  soon  the  teacher  sees  an 
increasing  laxness  in  certain  matters.  Whispering  is 
growing,  obedience  to  signals  is  less  prompt,  playing 
roughly  in  the  schoolroom  at  intermissions  begins.  It  is 
just  at  this  point  that  the  strong  teacher  wins  and  the 
weak  teacher  fails.  The  strong  teacher  calmly  and 
firmly  insists  on  the  school's  living  up  to  the  require- 
ments; and  the  school  comes  back  to  them.  The  weak 
teacher  does  not  know  how,  or  has  not  the  force  to 
check  the  downward  tendency,  and  things  go  from  bad 
to  worse.  Eternal  vigilance,  and  an  immovable  kindly 
steadfastness  of  purpose  are  the  price  of  uniformity  of 
control  in  the  school. 

No  personal  quality  is  more  in  demand  in  the  school- 
room than  self-control  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.     He 

r,  ,,        ^    ,  who  can  not  control  himself  should 

Self-control  neces- 
sary to  manage-        not  expect  to  control  others.     Every 

"^^"*  exhibition  of  uncontrolled  temper  is 

a  confession  of  weakness,  and  lowers  the  teacher  in  the 
respect  of  the  school.  Fits  of  anger  indulged  in  by  the 
teacher  engender  a  feeling  akin  to  contempt  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils. 

A  group  of  girls  just  graduated  from  high  school 
were  discussing  their  teachers,  and  commenting  on  their 
characteristics.  One  of  the  group  remarked:  "Now 
there  is  our  principal;  maybe  you  think  we  didn't  make 
things  interesting  for  him !  We  girls  used  to  meet  to- 
gether evenings  to  devise  ways  to  torment  him."  On 
being  asked  why  they  had  a  pick  at  this  particular  teacher, 
she  replied:  "Oh,  we  really  had  nothing  against  him; 
we  only  wanted  to  see  him  'perform,'  and  he  never  dis- 
appointed us.  We  were  willing  to  take  any  sort  of 
scolding  just  to  ^ti  him  started  upon  a  tirade." 


MANAGEMENT  189 

This  man  had  no  right  to  occupy  the  position  of 
teacher.  One  who  can  be  led  to  "perform"  at  the  beck 
of  a  group  of  mischievous  pupils  lacks  the  self-control 
necessary  to  the  respect  and  cooperation  of  his  school. 
Further,  the  heat  of  anger  clouds  the  judgment  and 
makes  fairness  and  justice  impossible.  What  teacher 
who  is  subject  to  fits  of  temper  has  not  said  or  done  things 
under  the  spur  of  anger  which  seemed  perfectly  justi- 
fiable and  right  at  the  moment,  but  which  caused  regret 
and  shame  when  later  looked  back  on!  Or  what  such 
teacher  has  not,  when  he  has  had  opportunity  for  calm 
thought,  been  obliged  to  reverse  some  rule,  demand  or 
threat  voiced  in  a  moment  when  self-control  was  lost ! 

Nor  are  teachers  possessing  this  lack  of  poise  and 
judgment  always  fair  enough  to  take  back  a  hasty  rule 
An  example  of  °^  demand  even  when  convinced  of 

hasty  judgment  its  injustice.  A  teacher  in  a  western 
rural  school  who  was  accustomed  to  "perform"  on  slight 
provocation  had  been  annoyed  by  caricatures  of  herself 
drawn  on  the  blackboard  during  her  absence  from  the 
room.  One  day  a  worse  drawing  than  usual  appeared. 
The  teacher  angrily  turned  to  the  school  and  demanded, 
"Who  did  that?"  No  one  replied.  Again  the  teacher 
asked  for  the  culprit,  and  was  met  with  silence.  This 
angered  her  still  more  and  she  issued  her  ultimatum: 
"This  school  will  get  no  more  recesses  until  some  one 
tells  me  who  drew  that  picture."  Of.  course  no  one 
would  tell,  so  recesses  were  cut  off,  and  the  school  grew 
sullen  from  injustice.  Neither  side  would  give  in,  and 
friction  developed  into  rebellion.  The  upshot  of  it  was 
that  the  school  board  ordered  the  teacher  to  grant  the 
school  its  recesses,  and  the  teacher  quit  the  school  in 
humiliation  and  defeat. 


I90  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Self-control  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  must  atso  ex- 
tend to  his  dealing  with  the  patrons  of  the  school.  Pa- 
Control  with  refer-  ^'ents  are  not  always  wise  or  just  in 
ence  to  complaints  matters  concerning  their  children. 
Happy  is  the  teacher  who  is  not  now  and  then  visited 
by  irate  fathers  and  mothers  who  claim  that  their  per- 
fectly peaceable  child  has  been  assaulted  on  the  way  to 
school,  or  that  his  dinner  has  been  stolen,  or  his  books 
or  pencils  appropriated  by  other  children.  When  such 
a  situation  arises,  the  teacher  possessing  tact  or  self-con- 
trol will  satisfy  the  parent,  and  bring  the  interview  to 
an  end  in  friendship  and  good-will.  The  teacher  who 
lacks  control  will  be  likely  to  bring  on  a  stormy  inter- 
view that  decides  nothing,  and  which  leaves  bitter  feel- 
ings to  rankle  after  the  trivial  cause  of  the  interview  is 
long  forgotten. 

No  discussion  on  school  management  can  point  out 
all  the  problems  that  will  arise  in  the  course  of  a  term, 
"Danger  points"  ^^^  ^^^  unexpected  is  likely  to  appear 
in  management  at  any  moment.  There  are,  however, 
certain  problems  that  present  themselves  in  most  schools, 
and  may  therefore  be  called  the  "constant"  problems,  or 
the  "danger  points"  in  school  management. 

One  of  these  is  boisterous  play  in  the  schoolroom  dur- 
ing intermissions.  There  are  many  reasons  why  children 
Boisterous  play  in  should  not  be  rough  and  noisy  in  the 
the  schoolroom  schoolroom  at  intermissions.  The 
first  of  these  reasons  relates  to  the  effects  of  what  the 
psychologist  calls  suggestion.  Any  part  of  our  environ- 
ment comes  to  suggest  to  us  the  activities  that  we  per- 
form in  connection  with  this  environment.  The  dining- 
room  suggests  eating ;  the  church,  reverence  and  worship ; 
our  study  table,  concentration  and  effort;  and  so  on 


MANAGEMENT  191 

throughout  the  whole  circle  of  the  objects  and  places 
with  which  we  are  most  familiar. 

Now  if  the  schoolroom  is  used  solely  as  a  study  place 
and  as  a  workshop  for  our  lessons,  it  will  come  to  sug- 

«..     „  ^.     „      gest  these  things  to  us  and  make  it 

The  "suggestion"      ^  ^  ,       ,        .      ,  . 

carries  over  into  easy  to  study  and  work  when  m  this 
study  hours  environment.    If,  on  the  other  hand, 

the  schoolroom  is  used  as  a  playground  or  a  gymnasium, 
a  place  where  noisy  play,  shouting  and  hilarious  laugh- 
ter are  the  rule,  it  will  come  to  suggest  these  things  to 
us,  and  make  it  harder  to  settle  down  to  serious  be? 
havior  and  sober  study.  In  many  schools  no  talking 
except  in  a  conversational  tone  is  permitted  during  in- 
termissions, and  no  moving  about  except  in  a  quiet  or- 
derly way.  This  regulation  is  a  hardship  on  no  one, 
and  tends  to  make  the  government  of  the  school  much 
easier. 

A  second  reason  why  children  should  not  play  in  the 
schoolroom  at  intermissions  is,  that  they  should  be  out- 
Play  should  be  of-doors  in  the  fresh  air.  They 
out-of-doors  should  also  have  the  greater  freedom 
and  opportunity  for  exercise  given  by  the  playground. 
In  very  stormy  weather  it  may  be  impossible  to  play  out- 
of-doors.  It  is  then  that  the  resourceful  teacher  will 
propose  and  help  carry  through  some  of  the  more  quiet 
games,  which  are  suited  to  the  indoor  play  hour.  In  this 
way  he  can  not  only  teach  new  games  to  the  children, 
but  can  himself  come  to  know  them  better  and  win  more 
fully  their  confidence  and  friendship. 

Whispering  and  note-writing  are  another  schoolroom 
danger.  Communicating  with  others  by  means  of  oral 
or  written  speech  is  so  natural  and  harmless  an  impulse 
that  at  first  thought  it  seems  strange  that  it  should  need 


192  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

to  be  classed  as  a  schoolroom  misdemeanor.  Yet  even 
very  harmless  impulses  sometimes  require  restraint. 
Bookkeepers  at  adjoining  desks  do  not  converse  as  they 
add  columns  of  figures ;  telegraph  operators  do  not  talk 
while  they  are  sending  messages ;  the  musician  does  not 
whisper  to  a  friend  as  he  plays.  These  things  all  require 
individual  attention.  So  with  the  work  of  the  school. 
Lessons  must  be  learned  through  application  and  concen- 
tration. Constant  interruption  is  a  serious  and  unneces- 
sary waste  of  time.  And  besides  this,  the  child  needs  to 
learn  self-control ;  he  needs  to  learn  to  be  quiet  and  keep 
his  thoughts  to  himself,  as  well  as  to  express  them. 

Nor  does  it  help  matters  if  children  are  permitted  to 
whisper  "about  the  lesson."  This  is  precisely  what  they 
Whispering  "about  should  not  need  to  do  if  the  assign- 
the  lessons"  ment  has  been  properly  made  and  the 

child  has  given  attention  to  the  teacher's  directions.  In 
addition,  such  a  plan  is  sure  to  lead  the  child  to  lack  of 
frankness.  Other  things  than  the  lesson  will  be  discussed, 
and  the  moral  sense  of  the  child  be  dulled  by  this  de- 
ception. Whispering  during  study  time  should  be  re- 
duced to  the  lowest  possible  minimum. 

Note-writing  is  even  a  more  insidious  danger  in  the 
school  than  whispering,  for  it  is  harder  to  detect,  and  it 
No  truce  with  ^^^  greater  possibilities  of  evil.  Notes 

note-writing  can   be   passed   slyly    from    desk   to 

desk,  or  left  in  books,  or  delivered  personally  on  the  pre- 
text of  some  errand,  and  even  the  alert  teacher  finds  it 
hard  to  discover  the  culprit.  Not  infrequently,  also, 
school  notes  contain  improper  language  or  suggestion 
which  the  writer  would  not  dare  to  convey  in  oral  speech. 
Note-writing  is  so  unnecessary  to  the  work  of  the  school 


MANAGEMENT  193 

and  contains  so  many  possibilities  of  harm  that  it  should 
be  as  completely  eliminated  as  possible. 

Unnecessary  questions  and  moving  about  the  room 
should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.     Ability  in  manage- 

--  ment  is  shown  nowhere  better  than 

Unnecessary  con-      .  -  ,  . 

fusion  indicates  m  the  power  to  foresee  the  necessi- 
poor  management  ties  of  the  school  and  so  provide  for 
them  that  unnecessary  interruptions  shall  not  occur. 
Nine  out  of  ten  of  the  questions  commonly  asked  in  the 
rural  school  could  be  forestalled  by  taking  care  of  the 
details  of  lesson  assignments,  the  matter  of  pencils, 
books,  note-books  and  the  like.  A  full  supply  of  all  the 
latter  should  be  had  by  every  pupil,  and  no  borrowing 
be  allowed.  The  same  kind  of  care  and  attention  to  de- 
tails will  render  unnecessary  most  of  the  passing  about 
the  room  by  the  pupils  during  school  time. 

Questions  are  sometimes  asked  just  for  the  sake  of 
asking  them,  and  children  wish  to  leave  their  seats  for 
A  cure  for  ^^^  sake  of  the  change  and  the  rest 

"questions"  •     from   sitting.     They   are   not  to   be 

blamed  for  this  very  natural  desire,  but  it  can  be  grati- 
fied in  a  better  way.  Let  the  teacher  take  two  or  three 
minutes  in  the  middle  of  the  session,  have  the  windows 
and  doors  thrown  open,  and  every  one  march  around 
the  room  to  music,  or  go  through  a  set  of  calisthenic  exer- 
cises. This  will  afford  the  needed  change  and  relaxa- 
tion for  the  whole  school.  The  teacher  must  then  kindly 
but  firmly  insist  that  no  unnecessary  interruptions  shall 
occur. 

Injury  to  public  property  should  be  carefully  guarded. 
Children  can  very  early  be  taught  principles  of  justice 
and  honesty  toward  others,  and  the  school  offers  excel- 


194  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

lent  opportunities  for  such  lessons.     If  school  property 

is  injured  either  wantonly  or  accidentally  it  is  evident 

,  .        ^        , ,.  that  the  first  thin?  to  do  is  to  repair 

Injury  to  public 

property  to  be  the    damage.      The    child    should   be 

made  good  made  to  see  that  the  taxpayers  of  the 

district  have  supplied  the  schoolhouse  and  equipment  for 

the  use  of  the  school,  but  that  these  things  belong  to  the 

district.    In  one  rural  school  a  boy  was  found  to  have 

marred  a  newly  decorated  wall  of  the  school  building. 

He  was  sent  for  a  workman  to  come  and  repair  the  wall, 

and  the  bill  was  presented  to  the  boy  and  paid  by  him 

out  of  his  own  earnings.    The  boy  learned  through  this 

incident  a  practical  lesson  in  business   honesty,  which 

could  never  have  been  taught  him  theoretically. 

Our  people  are  sadly  lacking  as  a  nation  in  the  respect 
for  public  property.  There  are  those  who  will  ruth- 
American  tendency  ^^ss^X  deface  public  buildings,  parks, 
toward  vandalism  or  even  monuments  in  order  to 
to  obtain  a  little  souvenir  to  carry  away.  Others 
will  commit  such  acts  of  vandalism  wantonly.  The  most 
effective  cure  for  these  things  lies  not  so  much  in  lec- 
tures on  morals  and  ethics,  as  in  inculcating  practical 
lessons  in  morals  and  ethics  by  making  them  a  part  of  the 
conduct  of  the  children  in  the  school,  the  community  and 
the  home.  The  child  must  learn  that  the  first  step  in 
either  repentance  or  reparation  is,  so  far  as  it  is  possible, 
to  make  good  the  injury. 

The  question  of  morality  is  insistent  in  every  school. 
The  matters  which  have  just  been  discussed  are  of  such 
Children's  morals  nature  that  they  apply  more  or  less 
to  be  guarded  generally  to  the  entire  school.     But 

some  of  the  most  difiicult  problems  of  management  grow 
out  of  the  occasional  case  of  immorality.   It  is  an  excep- 


MANAGEMENT  195 

tional  school  which  does  not  have  some  child  who  uses 
profane  or  improper  speech,  or  whose  conduct  does  not 
in  some  other  way  suggest  immorality.  The  pure-minded 
child  should  be  protected  from  this  moral  contagion. 
One  such  center  of  immoral  influence  in  the  school,  if 
left  unchecked,  may  spread  until  the  whole  school  is 
contaminated. 

The  detection  and  prevention  of  such  influences  is  one 
of  the  teacher's  most  difficult  tasks.  The  teacher  must 
not  be  suspicious  and  spying  in  his  attitude  toward  the 
pupils ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  must  not  be  blind  or 
deaf  to  what  is  going  on.  He  must  be  thoroughly  alert 
to  what  is  taking  place  not  only  in  the  schoolroom,  but 
also  on  the  playground.  He  must  know  the  morals  of 
his  pupils  if  he  is  to  protect  the  innocent  and  reform  the 
wayward;  and  this  constitutes  both  an  opportunity  and 
an  obligation. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  Counting  up  all  the  acknowledged  failures  among 
teachers  you  have  known,  were  most  of  them  failures  in 
management  ?  Is  it  possible  that  some  fail  in  instruction, 
but  their  failure  is  not  so  easily  discovered?  Do  some 
fail  in  instruction  because  they  first  fail  in  management? 

2.  Judging  from  your  observation,  what  are  the  most 
troublesome  points  in  the  management  of  a  rural  school  ? 
Can  you  suggest  how  such  troubles  may  be  avoided? 

3.  What,  in  your  judgment,  is  responsible  for  the  at- 
titude of  so  many  pupils  who  seem  to  look  on  the 
teacher  as  a  natural  enemy,  and  feel  it  a  personal  tri- 
umph if  they  succeed  in  playing  some  trick  or  committing 
a  misdemeanor  without  being  discovered?  What  is  the 
remedy  ? 


196  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

4.  Do  you  agree  with  the  position  taken  on  scolding? 
Does  the  habit  have  a  tendency  to  grow  on  a  teacher? 
What  is  a  good  substitute? 

5.  Do  you  find  it  difficult  to  be  uniform  from  day  to 
day  in  your  requirements  and  government?  Can  you  re- 
late any  inequalities  to  lowered  vitality  or  impaired 
health?   To  bad  nerves? 

6.  Did  you  ever  go  to  school  to  a  teacher  who  had  fits 
of  temper?  If  so,  did  the  school  look  on  exhibitions  of 
temper  as  a  weakness  and  lose  respect  for  the  teacher 
because  of  them? 

7.  Do  you  believe  in  corporal  punishment?  If  not, 
what  is  your  substitute?  Is  sarcasm  or  ridicule  to  be 
preferred  to  whipping?  Should  a  child  usually  be  pun- 
ished before  the  school  (effect  of  making  a  martyr  of 
him)  ?  Should  punishment  take  place  while  teacher  or 
pupil  is  angry?  What  are  your  tests  of  the  effectiveness 
of  punishment? 

8.  Do  you  know  your  legal  rights  as  fixed  by  the  laws 
of  your  state  in  governing  and  punishing  a  pupil  in  your 
school?  Some  states  do  not  define  the  teacher's  rights  in 
detail,  but  simply  say  the  teacher  stands  in  loco  parentis 
to  the  pupil.   What  powers  are  thus  given? 


CHAPTER  XIII 


GOOD  TEACHING 


Important  and  necessary  as  good  organization  anci 
maflKgCiment  are  in  the  school,  they  can  never  be  an  end 
Teaching  the  high-  ^^  themselves.  Both  exist  only  to  pro- 
est  function  of  vide  the  conditions  under  which  teach- 
the  school  i^g  j^^y  ^q  q^    Teaching,  the  actual 

instruction  and  guidance  of  children  in  their  learning  and 
development,  is  the  ultimate  purpose  for  which  we  erect 
our  schoolhouses,  organize  our  schools  and  pay  our 
school  taxes.  And  no  matter  how  excellent  the  building 
and  equipment,  how  perfect  the  organization  of  the 
school,  or  how  skilful  its  management,  these  all  fail  of 
their  aim  if  they  are  not  crowned  by  good  teaching.  The 
true  teacher  will  therefore  always  have  before  him  a 
triple  ideal  for  his  school — careful  organization,  efficient 
management,  and  good  teaching ;  but  the  greatest  of  these 
is  teaching. 

Good  teaching  requires  first  of  all  that  the  teachet 
shall  meet  the  children  on  their  own  plane,  be  able  to  put 
Meeting  the  child  himself  in  the  child's  place  and  look 
on  his  own  plane  at  the  problems  and  difficulties  of 
learning  through  the  eyes  and  mind  of  a  child.  Children 
do  not  know  how  to  study,  for  study  is  an  art  and  has 
to  be  learned  the  same  as  any  other  art.  When  the  chil- 
dren first  enter  school  they  are  fresh  from  the  work  and 
the  play  of  home  life,  accustomed  to  deal  with  real  task^ 

197 


19S  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

and  concrete  objects.  We  place  in  their  hands  books  full 
of  symbols  of  which  they  know  nothing,  and  dealing 
with  lines  of  thought  unfamiliar  to  them.  We  tell  them 
to  get  their  lessons,  but  they  do  not  know  how.  And 
even  after  they  have  learned  to  recognize  words  and 
their  meanings,  the  process  of  gathering  and  unifying 
the  thought  of  a  printed  page  is  difficult.  Those  of  us 
who  have  studied  a  foreign  language  have  not  forgot- 
ten how  possible  it  is  to  know  all  the  separate  words  of 
a  paragraph  or  page,  and  yet  find  great  difficulty  in  col- 
lecting the  thought  of  the  whole. 

How  often  children  say  to  the  teacher,  "I  don't  know 
how  to  study  this  lesson."  Or,  "I  don't  understand  how 
Need  of  teaching  to  begin  on  this."  Every  such  confes- 
how  to  study  sion  is  in  some  sense  an  indictment  of 

the  teacher,  one  of  the  chief  of  whose  functions  is 
to  show  the  child  how  to  study.  It  would  do  many 
teachers  good  to  try  an  experiment  sometimes  given  to 
college  classes  in  psychology.  The  students  are  given 
slips  of  paper  on  which  is  printed  an  easy  story  consist- 
ing of  about  two  hundred  words.  Each  student  is  to 
read  this  story  aloud  as  fast  as  he  can  with  good  ex- 
pression. The  average  time  required  is  about  seventy- 
five  seconds.  Next,  the  class  is  given  similar  slips  with 
another  easy  story  of  the  same  length.  But  this  second 
story  is  printed  in  reverse  order  from  the  bottom  of  the 
page  upward,  and  without  capitalization  or  punctuation. 
The  students  are  to  read  the  story  aloud,  the  same  as  the 
first  one,  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  average  time  re- 
quired for  the  second  story  is  nearly  five  minutes,  and 
the  reading  sounds  for  all  the  world  like  a  First-Reader 
pupil  puzzling  out  unfamiliar  words.    We  often  forget 


GOOD   TEACHING  199 

that  the  page  of  a  book  is  as  new  to  the  child  as  the 
reversed  page  is  to  the  college  students. 

The  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Germany  give 
a  large  proportion  of  their  time,  especially  in  the  lower 
The  German  grades,  to  showing  the  children  how 

method  to  study  the  lesson  assigned.     New 

words  are  learned,  difficult  points  explained,  important 
sections  or  divisions  noted,  and  the  whole  method  of 
work  to  be  followed  is  suggested  or  outlined.  How  far 
this  is  ahead  of  our  very  common  custom  of  saying, 
"Take  the  next  two  pages,"  and  leaving  the  children  to 
flounder  helplessly  in  the  dark  when  they  come  to  study 
the  lesson. 

Good  teaching  inspires  confidence  and  courage  in  the 
pupils.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  telling  children  that 
Good  teaching  en-  they  are  dull  or  backward.  Prob- 
courages  the  child  ably  four  out  of  five  laggards 
are  failing  more  from  discouragement  than  lack  of 
ability.  A  thoughtless  teacher  was  one  day  called  by 
an  uplifted  hand  to  the  desk  of  a  glum-looking  boy. 
Joe  was  having  trouble  again  with  his  examples.  "O 
Joe,"  complained  the  teacher,  "you  are  so  dull!  I 
am  afraid  you  will  never  learn  arithmetic."  Now  this 
was  precisely  what  Joe  himself  feared,  and  the  judgment 
of  the  teacher  only  drove  the  conviction  more  deeply  into 
the  soul  of  the  disheartened  boy.  What  Joe  needed  was 
sympathy  and  encouragement,  and  a  teacher  wise  enough 
to  find  out  the  faulty  place  in  his  reasoning  and  to  help 
remedy  it.  An  army  or  a  football  team  which  enters  a 
conflict  expecting  defeat  is  already  half  beaten,  and  a 
pupil  who  starts  on  a  lesson  sure  he  can  not  master  it 
has  already  failed. 


,^-- 


200  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

The  teacher  should  be  able  to  radiate  good  cheer,  con- 
fidence and  encouragement  as  radium  discharges  energy. 
The  value  of  without   appreciably   diminishing   the 

good  cheer  supply.    The  schoolroom  ought  to  be 

the  brightest  and  happiest  place  anywhere  to  be  found. 
For  the  feelings  and  emotions  lie  very  close  to  our  in- 
tellectual powers,  and  the  full  capacity  of  our  minds 
can  never  be  called  into  play  except  under  the  stimulus 
of  belief  in  ourselves  and  happiness  in  our  work.  The 
teacher  must  know  how  to  render  sufficient  help  to  set 
the  powers  of  the  child  at  work,  but  must  not  do  the  work 
himself,  and  thus  leave  no  effort  or  victory  for  the  pupil. 
It  is  possible  to  do  too  much  for  the  child  just  as  it  is 
possible  to  do  too  little ;  it  is  easy  for  the  teacher  to  re- 
cite for  a  backward  or  poorly  prepared  pupil  and  save 
him  the  trouble.  The  best  teachers  are  therefore  not 
those  who  do  most  for  the  pupil,  but  those  who  lead 
the  pupils  to  do  most  for  themselves. 

Good  teaching  requires  interest  and  enthusiasm  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.  These  are  of  first  importance,  for 
The  contagion  ^^^Y    ^^^    contagious.      Nothing   can 

of  interest  take  their  place.    No  amount  of  learn- 

ing, no  determination  to  do  one's  duty,  no  display  of 
false  or  forced  vivacity  will  answer.  The  teacher  who 
lacks  a  true  and  deep-seated  interest  in  his  work  is  a 
dead  teacher,  no  matter  how  many  degrees  he  may  hold. 
And  through  what  we  call  the  influence  of  suggestion, 
this  deadness  of  spirit  is  felt  by  the  class  and  tends  to 
shape  their  attitude  toward  study.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
no  class  is  ever  found  giving  themselves  whole-heartedly 
and  gladly  to  a  subject  which  their  teacher  has  no  inter- 
est in  teaching,  nor  is  a  lifeless  class  possible  with  an 
enthusiastic  and  inspiring  teacher. 


GOOD   TEACHING  201 

The  skilful  teacher  keeps  close  to  the  every-day  inter- 
ests and  experiences  of  the  pupils.  He  does  not  substi- 
The  point  of  con-  ^^^^  rules  and  definitions  for  real  ob- 
tact  with  the  child  jects  and  experiences.  He  uses  the 
text-book  in  his  teaching,  but  is  not  hampered  and  bound 
down  by  it.  He  illustrates  difficult  points  by  applying  them 
to  the  immediate  activities  and  knowledge  of  his  pupils. 
This  point  of  view  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  a  ten-year- 
old  schoolgirl  who  was  one  day  walking  with  her  father 
along  the  brow  of  a  hill  on  one  side  of  which  nestled  a 
beautiful  little  valley.  The  father  said,  "See,  Marian, 
what  a  pretty  valley !"  Marian  stopped  short  and  gazed 
at  the  valley.  After  a  moment  she  exclaimed,  "So  that 
is  a  valley !  Why,  we  have  had  valleys  in  our  geography 
at  school,  but  I  would  not  have  known  that  this  was  a 
valley."  These  poor  children  had  committed  definitions 
of  valleys,  and  spelled  all  the  words  relating  to  valleys 
and  learned  the  names  of  many  far-away .  valleys  and 
answered  the  questions  out  of  the  geography,  but  the 
half-dozen  valleys  that  lay  within  sight  of  the  school- 
room windows  were  unknown  and  unrecognized  by  them. 
So  dead  and  dry  and  senseless  may  teaching  become ! 

The  teacher's  point  of  t^iVwhas  much  to  do  with  his 
skill  in  teaching.  It  makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world 
whether  one  is  teaching  arithmetic,  or  teaching  children. 
And  it  is  much  easier  to  teach  arithmetic  than  to  teach 
children.  Professor  Dewey  made  this  point  clear  when 
he  said,  "When  the  teacher  comes  before  his  class  he 
should  have  his  subject-matter  so  well  in  hand  that  it  is 
second  nature  to  him;  he  can  then  give  the  best  of  his 
power  and  enthusiasm  to  the  work  of  interpreting  the 
pupils, — to  studying  their  needs,  leading  their  thought, 
^nd  developing  their  interest.'* 


202  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

One  teacher,  fresh  from  a  normal  school,  complained 
to  the  superintendent  that  the  children  of  her  school  were 
Effects  of  point  below  the  average  and  not  normal 
of  view  children  in  their  studies.    The  super- 

intendent asked  her  the  reason  for  her  conclusion,  and 
she  replied:  "You  see  it  is  like  this;  I  have  been  at 
the  state  normal  school,  and  there  we  were  required  to 
work  out  lesson  plans  and  outlines  for  all  branches  we 
were  to  teach.  Now  I  have  been  using  those  outlines  and 
lesson  plans  just  as  we  were  given  them,  and  the  chil- 
dren are  unable  to  understand  or  do  the  work."  When' 
it  was  suggested  to  her  that  she  reconstruct  her  outlines^ 
and  plans  until  they  fitted  the  actual  boys  and  girls  of 
her  school,  instead  of  expecting  the  boys  and  girls  to  fit 
into  ready-made  plans,  the  idea  seemed  new  to  her.  But 
this  girl  had  the  willingness  and  ability  to  change  her 
point  of  view,  and  she  is  to-day  a  successful  teacher  of 
boys  and  girls,  whereas  she  was  formerly  an  inefficient 
teacher  of  grammar,  geography  and  arithmetic. 

Teaching  is  done  chiefly  in  the  recitation.  This  is  the 
teacher's  point  of  contact  with  his  pupils;  here  he  meets 
them  face  to  face  and  mind  to  mind.  It  is  in  the  recita- 
tion that  the  teacher  succeeds  in  stimulating  and  inspir- 
ing to  aims  and  ambitions  that  lead  to  a  full  and  helpful 
education,  or  else  fails  to  feed  the  fires  of  ambition  and 
thus  leaves  the  child  indifferent  to  training  and  self-de- 
velopment. The  teacher's  success  or  failure  in  the  reci- 
tation is  therefore  the  ultimate  measure  of  his  value  to 
the  school. 

Although  recitations  must  differ  greatly  for  different 
subjects  and  in  different  grades,  yet  certain  fundamental 
Principles  govern-  requisites  apply  to  all  recitations, 
ing  the  recitation     There  are  a  few  vital  tests  by  which 


GOOD   TEACHING  203 

the  teacher  can  estimate  his  own  success,  and  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  recitation. 

Does  the  recitation  grip  the  interest  of  the  class?  Are 
all  mentally  alert,  and  giving  attention  because  the  inter- 
est of  the  recitation,  and  not  the  teacher,  compels  them. 
The  writer  has  elsewhere  said :  "A  recitation  without  in- 
terest is  a  dead  recitation.  Because  it  possesses  no  life 
it  can  not  lead  to  growth.  Nothing  can  take  the  place  of 
interest.  Fear  may  for  a  time  drive  to  work,  but  it  does 
not  result  in  development.  Only  interest  can  bring  all 
the  powers  and  capacities  of  the  child  into  play.  Hence 
the  teacher's  first  and  greatest  problem  in  the  recitation 
is  the  problem  of  interest.  To  obtain  interest,  he  must 
use  every  resource  at  his  command.  This  does  not  mean 
that  he  is  to  bid  for  the  children's  interest  with  sensational 
methods  and  cheap  devices.  This  is  not  the  way  to  gain 
true  interest.  It  means,  rather,  that  he  is  to  offer  to  the 
class  subject-matter  suited  to  their  age  and  experience, 
and  presented  in  a  way  adapted  to  their  capacity  and 
understanding ;  that  he  is  to  have  all  conditions  surround- 
ing the  recitation  as  favorable  as  possible ;  and  that  he  is 
himself  to  be  constantly  a  source  of  interest  and  enthusi- 
asm."i 

Does  the  recitation  move  with  snap  and  vivacity?  This 
does  not  mean  noisily  and  after  a  scatter-brained  fashion 
The  recitation  ^^^^   does    not   give   opportunity    for 

must  have  life  calm  thought  and  mastery;  it  rather 

refers  to  the  continuity  of  thought  and  action  necessary 
to  preserve  an  unbroken  line  of  interest.  A  successful 
story  or  play  must  have  what  we  call  "movement." 
Something  must  be  taking  place,  so  that  interest  and  at- 
tention are  sustained.    Nothing  is  more  uninspiring  than 

*  The  Recitation,  page  thirty. 


204  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

a  recitation  that  drags,  with  pauses  and  breaks  caused" 
by  the  unpreparedness,  or  lack  of  skill  or  interest  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.  A  fair  sample  of  this  type  of  reci- 
tation was  heard  by  the  writer  in  a  western  rural  school 
It  was  a  Fourth-Reader  class  reading  Paul  Revere's 
Ride.  The  class  was  called,  and  came  sauntering  aim- 
lessly down  to  the  recitation  bench.  The  teacher  was 
sitting  listlessly  behind  her  desk.  A  little  girl  offered  the 
teacher  her  text,  which  was  accepted  without  recognition 
of  the  courtesy.  The  teacher  said,  "]o\\n,  you  may  read 
the  first  stanza."  John  arose  lazily  and  read  it  with  no 
show  of  enthusiasm.  "Mary,  read  the  next."  Mary  read 
the  next.  "Joe,  you  may  read  the  next."  Joe  complied. 
So  they  went  on  until  five  stanzas  had  thus  been  read. 
This  completed  the  assignment.  The  time  was  not  yet 
up,  so  they  read  the  lesson  through  again  after  the  same 
fashion,  with  no  comment,  suggestion  or  explanation. 
The  teacher  assigned  the  next  lesson,  and  the  class  was 
dismissed.  Not  a  word  had  been  said  about  the  historical 
setting  of  the  incident,  not  a  thrill  of  patriotism  had  been 
aroused,  and  not  an  appeal  had  been  made  to  the  imagina- 
tion. The  whole  lesson  was  a  dismal  failure,  a  bore  to 
the  teacher  and  an  imposition  on  helpless  childhood. 
Shame  on  such  teaching  and  such  a  teacher!  Better  a 
thousand  times  give  these  children  the  stirring  poem  to 
read  by  themselves  than  under  the  stifling  influence  of 
such  a  personality;  or  even  turn  them  out  on  the  play- 
ground or  set  them  at  work  in  their  homes  rather  than 
subject  them  to  the  benumbing  influence  of  such  spiritless 
instruction. 

Are  the  whole  class  taking  part  in  the  recitation  ?    This 
■aieans  not  alone  in  reciting  when  they  are  called  on,  but 


GOOD  TEACHING  205 

all  the  time.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  do  those  who  are 
not  for  the  moment  reciting,  wander  in  their  thought,  and 
Every  pupil  must  really  take  no  part  in  the  development 
cake  part  of  the  lesson?     The  questions  asked 

by  the  teacher,  the  explanations  given,  or  the  answers 
rendered  by  the  one  reciting  must  be  made  to  command 
the  thought  of  all.  If  the  attention  lags  and  the  attitude 
of  the  pupils  becomes  listless  while  they  are  not  being 
called  on,  this  may  be  taken  as  an  evidence  of  failure  in 
the  recitation.  Thinking  can  not  thus  be  done  in  piece- 
meal and  be  efficient.  Further,  the  pupils  need  to 
learn  the  lesson  of  giving  sustained  attention.  They 
must  learn  to  think  a  reasonable  length  of  time  contin- 
uously, without  faltering  or  lagging.  The  remedy  for 
this  inattention  on  the  part  of  the  class  is  not,  however, 
scolding,  or  rapping  on  the  desk  for  attention,  such  as  is 
heard  in  many  schools.  It  is  inspiring  teaching  and  en- 
thusiasm on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

Is  each  pupil  in  the  recitation  receiving  his  share  of 
opportunity  and  requirement f  A  temptation  constantly 
Each  to  receive  his  to  be  guarded  against  is  that  of  call- 
?hare  of  attention  ing  chiefly  on  the  bright  and  ready 
pupils.  The  recitation  moves  off  much  better  if  we  do  not 
call  on  the  bungler  or  the  slow-coach.  The  sparkling 
eyes  and  ready  lips  of  the  well  prepared  pupil  are  a 
potent  invitation  to  ask  him  the  question  that  should  go 
to  the  backward  one.  The  child  slow  in  expression  or 
understanding  must  have  bis  chance ;  he  needs  encourage- 
ment in  expressing  his  thoughts,  and  can  attain  freedom 
only  through  practise.  And  it  may  also  be  true  that  the 
too-ready  child  needs  to  learn  control,  and  to  cultivate 
ti^  habit  of  thinking  before  he  speaks. 


2o6  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Does  the  teacher  by  skilful  questioning  and  by  build- 
ing on  what  the  pupils  already  know  lead  to  understand- 
The  question  as  a  ing  of  new  truths, — or  does  he  tell 
method  of  teaching  the  facts  himself  ?  Ever  since  the 
days  of  Socrates  the  method  of  developing  knowledge 
in  the  mind  of  the  child  by  skilful  questioning  has  been 
accepted  as  the  best  and  most  natural  way.  Yet  many 
teachers  do  not  make  good  use  of  this  method.  It  is 
much  easier  for  the  teacher  to  recite  the  troublesome 
point  himself  than  to  lead  the  child  to  see  it  through  a 
series  of  questions ;  hence  the  lazy  or  thoughtless  teacher 
falls  into  this  rut.  Other  teachers  talk  too  much  in  gen- 
eral. They  know  the  subject  well  and  like  to  talk  about 
it,  so  they  do  most  of  the  reciting  for  the  pupils.  Still 
others,  after  having  called  on  a  pupil  to  recite,  will  inter- 
rupt him  and  go  on  to  finish  the  discussion  themselves. 
This  is  not  only  bad  manners,  but  even  worse  pedagogy. 
Children  learn  to  do  by  doing,  and  knowledge  becomes 
clear  and  usable  only  through  its  expression.  Let  the 
teacher  therefore  set  a  guard  over  his  own  tongue,  and 
cultivate  the  art  of  questioning. 

Has  the  teacher  learned  the  art  of  questioning f  For 
questioning  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  arts  to  master,  and 
Questioning  a  ^"^  °^^'*  which  few  have  perfect  con- 

fine art  trol.    Is  the  teacher  tied  down  to  the 

text-book  in  questioning,  asking  the  questions  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  book?  One  can  not  teach  until  one  is  able 
to  declare  his  independence  of  a  book.  This  does  not 
mean  that  he  may  never  refer  to  the  text  in  the  recitation. 
But  it  does  require  that  he  know  the  general  subject  and 
the  particular  lesson  so  well  that  he  is  not  dependent  on 
the  text  for  his  questions.  Anything  less  than  this  is 
mere  testing  or  catechizing  and  can  not  be  called  teaching. 


GOOD   TEACHING  207 

Do  the  questions  follow  one  another  in  a  natural  se- 
quence determined  by  the  lesson  to  be  developed,  or  are 
Principles  of  good  they  disconnected  and  haphazard? 
questioning  Only  the  teacher  who  is  thoroughly 

master  of  his  subject  can  build  his  successive  questions 
on  the  pupils'  answers,  clearing  up  a  point  here,  empha- 
sizing a  truth  there,  and  making  the  whole  series  result  in 
a  coherent  unified  knowledge  of  the  lesson. 

Are  the  questions  clear f  Often  children  do  not  know 
how  to  answer  a  question  because  they  are  not  certain 
what  the  question  means  to  ask.  Here  are  some  ques- 
tions recently  asked  by  rural  teachers  in  their  recitations : 
"What  about  the  fish  in  the  Mammoth  Cave?  Why  has 
a  cat  fur  and  duck  feathers?  What  happens  when  it 
lightens?  What  of  the  animals  in  the  temperate  zone? 
How  does  tobacco  grow?"  Not  one  of  these 
questions  is  clear,  and  hence  none  will  admit  of 
a  definite  answer.  They  are  all  the  result  of  loose  or 
careless  thinking,  and  betray  the  teacher's  lack  of  skill. 

Are  the  standards  of  the  recitation  sufficiently  high? 

Is  the  work  thorough  so  that  it  will  do  to  build  on  for 

-,,  .^  ^.        ,       later  study?    Much  time  is  wasted  in 

The  recitation  de-  ■' 

mands  high  our  rural  schools  by  stopping  short  of 

standards  reasonable    mastery.       Children    are 

trying  to  work  in  percentage  when  they  can  not  handle 
the  decimals  involved;  they  are  attempting  denominate 
numbers  and  measurements  when  they  can  not  use  simple 
fractions.  Likewise,  we  find  them  in  advanced  parts  of 
the  grammar  when  they  can  not  recognize  the  parts  of 
speech  in  a  sentence,  or  pick  out  the  subject  and  predi- 
cate. And  so  with  the  other  subjects.  Most  of  this  in- 
excusable waste  of  time,  effort  and  interest  on  the  part 
of  the  child  may  be  laid  at  the  door  of  the  teachers  who 


2o8  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

did  not  take  the  time  or  trouble  to  insure  mastery  of 
fundamentals  before  passing  from  them. 

Further,  the  children  need  for  their  own  sake  to  be 
trained  in  high  standards  of  excellence.  The  child  who 
is  set  a  task,  and  then  let  off  with  the  task  poorly  done, 
or  not  done  at  all,  has  had  an  element  of  weakness  and 
danger  built  into  his  life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  one 
who  has  been  taught  to  measure  up  to  all  reasonable  re- 
quirements and  to  set  a  high  standard  for  his  work, 
has  added  an  invaluable  element  of  strength  to  his  char- 
acter. 

Is  the  recitation  free  from  distractionsf  If  thought 
and  interest  are  to  move  along  In  an  unbroken  train,  they 
Distractions  fatal  must  not  be  interrupted  too  fre- 
to  the  recitation  quently.  The  teacher  who  stops 
the  recitation  to  answer  questions  asked  by  those 
outside  the  class,  or  to  correct  disorder,  is  himself 
a  source  of  distraction,  and  ought  to  mend  his  ways. 
Most  of  the  questions  usually  asked  in  the  rural  school 
could  be  saved  by  better  foresight  and  management,  and 
those  that  really  need  to  be  answered  can  usually  be  at- 
tended to  between  classes.  The  writer  saw  one  teacher 
in  the  midst  of  a  reading  recitation  leave  a  boy  reading  a 
paragraph  while  she  went  back  in  the  room  to  help  an- 
other pupil  solve  a  problem  in  arithmetic.  The  reader 
mumbled  his  paragraph  through,  and  then  the  class 
waited  for  the  teacher  to  return  to  the  recitation.  Such 
gross  mismanagement  and  incompetency  as  this  teacher 
manifested  would  not  be  tolerated  in  a  business  'X)ncern, 
but  would  surely  result  in  dismissal. 

The  physical  conditions  surrounding  the  recitation  are 
|lot  seldom  a  source  of  distraction.     The  recitation  seat 


GOOD   TEACHING  209 

is  sometimes  near  the  stove,  and  the  class  are  subjected 
to  a  roasting  process.  Sometimes  the  sunlight  falls  di- 
Physical  condi-  rectly   on   the   books,    and   the   eyes 

tions  a  factor  are  dazzled  or  pained.     The  air  not 

infrequently  is  unfit  for  breathing,  and  results  in  lowered 
vitality  and  fagged  brains.  The  minds  of  the  pupils 
should  be  at  their  highest  level  of  efficiency  in  the  recita- 
tion, and  every  possible  condition  should  be  arranged  to 
favor  this  end. 

Is  the  teacher  helpful  and  responsive  in  the  recitation  ? 
Nothing  is  more  embarrassing  to  one  speaking  than  to 
Importance  of  have  a  dull,  bored,  or  unresponsive 

teacher's  attitude  listener.  The  teacher  whose  face 
shows  no  sign  of  interest  or  appreciation  is,  to  say  the 
least,  not  a  source  of  inspiration  to  his  class.  Teachers 
are  sometimes  critical,  faultfinding  and  cross  in  the  reci- 
tation. This  attitude  is  always  a  mistake,  for  it  has  a 
tendency  to  embarrass  the  timid  and  to  make  sullen  the 
more  bold.  A  recitation  at  its  best  is  simply  an  interest- 
ing conversation  carried  on  between  teacher  and  class ; 
and  a  conversation  requires  courtesy  and  responsiveness 
on  both  sides.  The  teacher  must  learn  to  be  firm,  insist- 
ent and  thorough  without  becoming  severe  or  over-crit- 
ical. His  attitude  should  always  be  one  of  helpfulness 
and  cooperation  rather  than  one  of  attempting  to  corner 
or  trap. 

Is  the  assignment  of  the  next  lesson  properly  made? 

Or  does  the  teacher  simply  say,  "Take  the  next  chapter ; 

r^     J,  ^      ,.  the  class  is  excused"?     Every  lesson 

Good  teaching  re-  / 

quires  careful  as-  should  be  clearly  and  definitely  as- 
signment signed,  so  that  every  member  of  the 
class  knows  exactly  what  is  to  be  done.  The  hard  points 
should  be  given  attention,  and  the  more  important  sec- 


210  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tions  emphasized.  The  method  of  attack  on  the  lesson 
should  be  suggested,  and  help  given  on  the  mode  of  its 
preparation.  That  all  this  will  take  time  is  no  excuse  for 
neglecting  it.  A  reasonable  proportion  of  the  recitation 
time  is  better  expended  in  this  way  than  in  any  other. 
Any  failure  properly  to  assign  lessons  betrays  lack  of 
efficiency  in  one  of  the  most  important  phases  of  the 
teacher's  work. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  Can  you  recall  one  or  two  of  your  own  teachers 
who  were  especially  a  source  of  inspiration  and  help  to 
you?   Can  you  explain  the  secret  of  their  powers? 

2.  One  writer'says  that  "vicariousness" — the  power  of 
putting  one's  self  in  another  person's  place — is  the  first 
great  attribute  of  a  teacher.  If  so,  why  is  this  true?  What 
are  several  other  fundamental  attributes? 

3.  Are  all  of  the  qualities  that  go  to  make  a  good 
teacher  desirable  outside  the  schoolroom? 

4.  What  qualities  in  particular  would  you  say  are  most 
desirable  in  a  teacher?  One  writer  says  that  a  teacher's 
personality  is  even  more  important  than  his  knowledge. 
Is  this  statement  true  ?  Can  the  personality  be  improved  ? 

5.  You  have  known  some  recitations  to  drag  and 
others  to  move  with  life  and  interest.  What  factors  are 
responsible  for  this  difference? 

6.  How  much  preparation  do  you  get  for  your  daily 
recitations?  Do  you  enjoy  recitations  better  when  you 
are  well  prepared  ?  Do  the  children  respond  better  ?  How 
can  you  prepare  daily  if  you  have  twenty-five  classes? 

7.  What  is  your  method  in  assigning  lessons  ?  Do  you 
think  it  pays  to  take  time  for  careful  assignments  ?  What 
do  you  do  with  children  who  forget  assignments? 

,  8.   Have  you  observed  wide  variations  in  the  standards 


GOOD   TEACHINC  21 1 

of  excellence  in  the  recitations  in  different  schools?  Is 
not  all  thoroughness  relative,  and  will  the  teacher  not 
need  to  take  age  and  development  into  account?  On  the 
other  hand,  should  partial  answers  and  half -mastered 
truths  be  allowed  to  pass  uncompleted? 


PART  IV 

CONSOLIDATION  AND  RURAL- 
SCHOOL  EFFICIENCY 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION 

Many  different  factors  are  at  work  for  the  betterment 

of  the  rural  schools.     Of  these  none  is  more  vital  and 

_,  .        important  than  the  movement  toward 

Changes  necessi-  ....  ... 

tating  consoli-  consolidation,   or   the   combmmg   of 

<***^°"  several  small  district  schools  into  a 

single  larger  one.  This  movement  first  arose  in  New 
England,  where  it  owed  its  origin  to  the  dwindling  size 
of  the  district  schools.  A  generation  or  two  ago  it  was 
common  for  the  rural  school  to  enroll  thirty  or  forty 
pupils,  and  not  infrequently  as  many  as  fifty  were  to  be 
found  within  its  walls.  But  that  day  is  past.  Permanent 
social  and  industrial  changes  have  come  about,  and 
towns  and  cities  are  claiming  an  increasingly  larger  pro- 
portion of  our  people.  Besides  this,  not  a  few  of  those 
who  live  on  the  farms  now  send  their  children  to  the 
town  school  instead  of  to  the  little  home  school.  The 
consequence  is  that  the  district  school  has  been  losing  in 
numbers,  and  occasional  schools  have  become  extinct 
from  sheer  lack  of  pupils.  Thousands  of  rural  schools 
are  to-day  running  with  less  than  ten  pupils,  and  many 
with  under  half  that  number. 

This   loss   in   numbers   has   produced   serious  conse- 
quences in  the  rural  school,  and  our  people  are  coming 

Loss  in  efficiency  *°  '^^  *^^^  *^^  interest,  the  efficiency 
through  small  and  the  economy  formerly  belonging 

schools  |.Q  ^j^g  larger  district  school  are  want- 

215 


2i6  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

ing  in  the  small  schools  of  the  present.  To  continue  these 
unprofitable  schools  is  like  attempting  to  carry  on  our 
manufactures  in  thousands  of  primitive  and  poorly- 
equipped  shops,  each  employing  but  a  few  workmen,  in- 
stead of  conducting  such  industries  in  well-equipped 
factories  manned  with  hundreds  or  thousands  of  skilled 
mechanics.  Readjustments  must  be  made  to  meet  the 
changed  conditions  in  education,  just  as  they  have  been 
made  to  meet  new  conditions  in  the  industries. 

Consolidation  is  no  new  and  untried  experiment,  as 
many  unacquainted  with  its  history  think.  Massachusetts 
Origin  of  con-  *°°^  the  first  step  toward  consolida- 

solidation  tion  in  the  year  1869,  and  has  steadily 

continued  the  policy  to  the  present  day.  The  pioneer  in 
the  movement  was  Superintendent  William  L.  Eaton,  of 
Concord.  He  looked  about  him  in  Concord  Township, 
and  saw  the  small  and  struggling  schools,  each  irregularly 
attended  by  little  groups  of  children  from  the  neighbor- 
ing farms.  He  concluded  that  the  children  would  be  bet- 
ter off  in  one  larger  and  stronger  school.  But  the  homes 
were  widely  scattered,  and  the  distance  was  too  great  to 
walk.  There  was  no  law  at  that  time  allowing  public 
money  to  be  spent  for  the  transportation  of  children  to 
school.  A  new  law  was  sought  for  this  purpose,  and  the 
school  was  opened.  At  firs'*,  the  new  school  consisted  of 
only  two  districts,  but  others  voted  to  come  in,  and  by 
the  end  of  ten  years  all  the  schools  of  Concord  Township 
were  consolidated. 

The  movement  thus  begun  soon  extended  to  other 
New  England  states,  and  so  on  to  the  Middle  West,  and 
Extent  of  more  recently  to  the  South  and  the 

consolidation  far  West.     Consolidated  schools  now 

form  ^n  integral  part  of  the  school  systeni  pf  i^lly  three-s 


This  building  was  planned  for  a  school  of  forty  or  fifty  pupils.  The 
attendance  has  now  dwindled  to  nine.  For  two  years  the  boy 
shown  in  the  picture  was  the  only  boy  in  the  school.  This  is  a 
case  where  a  good  district  building  adequately  equipped  fails  to 
attract  pupils  when  a  consolidated  school  is  within  reach 


b^^^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^'  ^^^^'2!^JhHH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I 

Southern  state  superintendents  leaving  Crawfordsville,  Indiana,  the 
starting  point  of  a  twelve  day  tour  among  the  consolidated  schools 
of   Indiana,   Ohio,   Maryland,   Virginia  and   Canada 


Coiirtcsy    of   N.    R.    Baker    (Ala.) 
An  old  log  school  house  with   only  one  window  and  this  without  glass 


MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION   217 

fourths  of  the  states,  and  are  spreading  to  the  remaining 
ones.  This  type  of  school  is  in  successful  operation  all 
the  way  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  from  Massachusetts 
to  Washington  and  Oregon.  It  is  therefore  not  limited 
to  any  particular  geographical  or  economic  conditions. 
The  plan  has  proved  successful  on  the  plains  of  Texas, 
among  the  hills  of  Vermont,  and  on  the  sparsely-settled 
prairies  of  North  Dakota. 

This  is  not  to  say  that  all  district  schools  are  soon  to 
be  replaced  by  consolidated  schools,  and  that  the  one- 
room  school  will  henceforth  be  remembered  only  as 
history.  Many  conditions  render  this  impossible.  There 
are  now  in  the  United  States  something  over  two  hun- 
dred thousand  one-room  country  schools,  while  but  a  few 
thousand  consolidated  schools  have  been  organized. 

Yet  the  importance  of  the  consolidation  movement 
can  not  be  measured  by  a  comparison  of  these  figures. 
For,  though  the  movement  began 
more  than  forty  years  ago,  it  is  only 
within  the  last  decade  that  it  has  taken  on  national  im- 
portance and  gathered  irresistible  momentum.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  more  schools  have  been  consolidated  during 
the  last  five  years  than  in  all  the  time  preceding  since  the 
movement  began.  There  is  not  a  state  in  the  union  where 
consolidation  is  not  now  being  agitated,  and  compulsory 
or  favorable  legislation  is  being  pnssed  in  many  of  them. 
As  an  example  of  these  laws,  Indiana  requires  the  auto- 
matic closing  of  all  schools  that  fall  below  twelve  in  en- 
rollment, while  Minnesota  and  Iowa  have  recently  passed 
acts  granting  state  aid  to  schools  that  consolidate.  The 
Federal  Bureau  of  Education  and  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture are  both  giving  much  attention  and  study  to  the 
aatter  of  consolidation,  and  are  lending  it  their  powerful 


2i8  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

support  as  a  part  of  rural-school  improvement.  Jtate 
departments  of  education  are  also  taking  up  the  question 
and  urging  its  acceptance  by  their  people.  Besides  these 
activities,  county  superintendents,  patrons  and  teachers 
are  studying  and  discussing  the  matter,  and  rapidly  pre- 
paring the  way  for  its  more  general  acceptance. 

One  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  the  wide- 
spread interest  in  the  success  of  consolidation  is  found 
in  the  recent  visit  of  a  party  of  educators  consisting  of 
eleven  southern  state  superintendents,  several  state 
supervisors  of  rural  schools,  a  representative  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Southern  Education  Board,  to  certain 
regions  where  consolidated  schools  are  in  operation. 
These  men  were  sent  at  the  expense  of  public  funds  or 
private  benefactions  to  study  the  systems  of  consolidation 
as  they  are  being  worked  out  in  sections  of  Indiana,  Ohio, 
Canada,  Maryland  and  Virginia.  They  came  to  the 
problem  with  open  minds,  ready  to  see  both  the  ad- 
vantages and  the  faults  of  such  a  system.  Some  of  them 
had  already  been  advocating  consolidation  in  their  home 
states,  while  others  were  less  certain  of  its  success.  Their 
sincere  purpose  was  to  learn  at  first-hand  to  what  extent 
the  consolidated  schools,  once  permanently  established, 
enter  into  rural  community  life  and  become  a  factor  in 
preparing  the  youth  educationally  and  vocationally  for 
their  work. 

These  educators  visited  the  schools  in  their  regular 
daily  work.    They  rode  in  the  school  wagons ;  they  talked 

Leading  educators  ^^^^  P^^^°"''  P^P^!"'  ^^^^^^"^  ^"^ 
support  the  trustees ;  they  investigated  the  matter 

movement  Qf    expense,    both    for    running    the 

school  and  for  transportation ;  they  studied  the  effect  on 


MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION   219 

attendance  and  educational  interest.  In  every  possible 
way  these  investigators  sought  to  discover  the  true  meas- 
ure of  the  efficiency  of  consolidated  schools.  As  a  result 
of  their  painstaking  study  the  cause  of  consolidation  has 
been  greatly  advanced.  For,  so  fully  convinced  were 
these  officials  of  the  value  and  feasibility  of  consolida- 
tion, that  they  are  earnestly  advocating  its  adoption,  and 
have  already  done  much  to  further  the  movement  in 
their  own  and  other  states.  Through  their  influence  and 
other  factors  also  at  work,  many  parts  of  the  South  are 
now  leading  the  North  in  rural-school  reform  and  prog- 
ress. 

,  The  movement  toward  consolidation  has  at  no  stage 
been  a  fad.  Farmers  are  naturally  a  highly  conservative 
Consolidation  class,  and  because  of  their  very  isola- 

not  a  fad  tion,  immune  from  the  hasty  and  ir- 

rational spirit  of  the  mob.  Consolidation  is  therefore 
but  gradually  being  assimilated  into  the  rural-school 
system.  It  has  been  adopted  as  a  result  of  observation 
and  experiment,  and  it  flourishes  best  where  civic  ambi- 
tion and  high  educational  ideals  control.  There  is  no 
danger  of  reaction  toward  the  old  district  type  of  school ; 
for  in  no  case  has  a  fully  consolidated  school  reverted 
to  the  former  one-room  type.  Indeed  the  greatest  of  all 
factors  in  promoting  consolidation  is  the  loyalty  and 
enthusiasm  of  the  patrons  of  consolidated  schools  who, 
as  a  rule,  are  abundantly  satisfied  with  the  new  school, 
and  would  not  hear  of  returning  to  the  old. 

The  present  status  of  consolidation  may  be  estimated 
from  recent  statements  written  or  published  by  the  state 
Present  status  of  superintendents  of  certain  of  the  con- 
consolidation  solidation  states.  In  Massachusetts 
the  movement  has  almost  ceased  to  advance,  from  the 


220  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

fact  that  it  has  proceeded  about  as  far  as  is  at  present 
practicable.  This  state  spent  over  a  third  of  a  million 
dollars  during  the  year  1911-1912  for  the  transportation 
of  pupils  to  consolidated  schools.  Louisiana  has  three 
hundred  consolidated  schools,  accommodating  some  fifty 
thousand  pupils.  Idaho  is  transporting  over  five  thou- 
sand children  at  public  expense,  and  predicts  that  w^ithin 
a  few  years  consolidated  schools  will  completely  sup- 
plant one-room  schools.  In  Washington  more  than  thirty 
of  the  forty  counties  have  begun  consolidation,  and  the 
movement  is  rapidly  growing.  Consolidation  has  pro- 
ceeded so  far  in  Rhode  Island  that  there  are  less  than  two 
hundred  ungraded  schools  left  in  the  state.  Under  the 
new  consolidation  law,  Minnesota  built  about  sixty  con- 
solidated schools  in  the  year  1911-1912,  and  the  move- 
ment is  spreading  with  great  rapidity;  sixteen  thousand 
pupils  attend  consolidated  schools  in  Minnesota.  Kansas 
has  nine  thousand  children  attending  the  consolidated 
schools,  which  are  constantly  growing  in  favor.  Okla- 
homa finds  the  consolidation  sentiment  stimulated  by  re- 
cent legislation  granting  state  aid  to  consolidated  schools, 
and  now  has  over  eight  thousand  children  in  these 
schools.  Arkansas  has  more  than  one  hundred  consoli- 
dated schools,  and  many  others  in  project.  Ohio  has 
two  hundred  consolidated  schools,  accommodating  fifteen 
thousand  rural  children,  and  is  rapidly  extending  the  con- 
solidated system.  Florida  reports  consolidated  schools 
in  thirty-three  of  the  forty-eight  counties  of  the  state. 
Tennessee  accommodates  some  eight  thousand  pupils  iti 
consolidated  schools,  and  is  extending  the  system.  Ver- 
mont sends  one-fifth  of  her  rural  children  to  consolidated 
schools,  and  is  increasing  the  proportion.  Seven  out  of 
Utah's  twenty-seven  counties  have  consolidated  thei< 


MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION  221 

jchools,  which  are  attended  by  an  aggregate  of  more  than 
thirty-one  thousand  pupils.  New  Jersey  expends  about 
two  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually  for  the  trans- 
portation of  pupils  to  school.  North  Carolina  is  pushing 
consolidation,  and  now  has  about  one-fourth  of  her  pupils 
accommodated  in  schools  of  two  or  more  rooms. 

This  new  type  of  school  has  absorbed  more  than 
twelve  hundred  of  North  Carolina's  one-room  schools 
during  the  last  ten  years.  It  is,  however,  in  the  state  of 
Indiana  that  the  greatest  progress  has  been  made  in  re- 
cent years,  and  that  we  find  the  nearest  approach  to  a 
state  system  of  consolidated  schools.  Eighty-two  out  of 
the  ninety-two  counties  of  the  state  now  have  consoli- 
dated schools  in  operation,  and  approximately  half  a  mil- 
lion dollars  a  year  is  being  paid  for  the  transportation  of 
pupils  to  consolidated  schools.  Many  of  these  consoli- 
dated schools  have  a  full  four-year  high-school  course, 
and  as  full  equipment  as  a  city  school.  Montgomery 
County,  in  this  state,  is,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  the  banner 
county  for  the  proportion  of  its  rural  pupils  attending 
consolidated  schools,  the  percentage  being  eighty-four  for 
consolidated  schools  and  sixteen  for  one-room  schools. 

Still  other  statements  could  be  presented  showing 
similar  conditions  in  many  of  the  remaining  states. 
Enough  has  been  said,  however,  to  prove  that  consolida- 
tion has  passed  the  experimental  stage.  It  is  no  longer  a 
question  of  whether  the  one-room  schools  yet  remaining 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  shall  be  abandoned,  and 
consolidated  schools  erected  in  their  stead;  the  question 
is  rather  how  this  is  best  to  be  brought  about,  and  what 
should  be  the  type  of  the  new  school. 

The  rapidity  of  the  movement  toward  consolidation  is 


222  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

affected  by  the  methods  adopted  for  the  change  from 
one  system  to  the  othero  The  earhest  laws  in  New 
Methods  of  Chang-  England  required  that  each  one  of 
ing  to  consolidated  the  districts  affected  by  consolida- 
system  ^^^^   should   vote    separately   on   the 

question,  and  that  no  district  should  be  forced  to  aban- 
don its  school  against  its  will.  This  plan  was  natural 
and  right  enough  v/hilc  the  movement  was  still  an  experi- 
ment. But  it  is  at  best  but  a  slow  process,  for,  voting  by 
single  districts,  a  few  objectors  can  often  defeat  the 
whole  project.  The  later  method,  first  adopted  by  the 
Ohio  voters,  is  for  the  entire  area  to  be  included  in  the 
consolidated  district  to  vote  as  a  unit.  Thus,  under  this 
method,  if  it  is  ^^roposed  to  form  a  new  district  by  con- 
solidating five  small  districts,  the  voters  from  all  the 
districts  assemble  and  vote  in  the  one  election,  a  majority 
carrying  the  project  for  all  districts  concerned.  This 
method  is  undoubtedly  the  better  one,  and  the  plan  that 
should  be  followed  in  all  new  legislation  on  the  subject. 
Three  different  legislative  methods  have  been  chiefly 
employed  to  provide  for  the  extension  of  the  system  of 
Legislation  bear-  consolidation:  (i)  Permissive  legis- 
ing  on  consoli-  lation,    which    merely    provides    that 

^^*^°^  school  districts  or  townships  may  if 

they  wish  consolidate  their  schools  and  provide  trans- 
portation at  public  expense.  Such  were  the  earlier  laws 
in  all  the  pioneer  states,  and  the  type  that  is  still  common 
in  most  of  the  states.  We  have,  therefore,  no  complete 
state  system  of  consolidation.  The  movement  is  strictly 
one  of  local  or  district  option.  (2)  Compulsory  legis- 
lation^ requiring  that  all  schools  which  fall  below  a 
certain  minimum  shall  be  closed,  and  the  pupils  trans- 


MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION   223 

ported  to  neighboring  schools  at  public  e'xpense.  It  is 
hardly  probable  that  this  type  of  legislation  will  become 
popular,  though  it  is  entirely  rational  v/herevcr  the  con- 
ditions are  such  that  transportation  of  the  pupils  belong- 
ing to  the  abandoned  school  is  possible,  Indiana  has 
taken  the  lead  in  compulsory  legislation,  requirinf;^  the 
discontinuance  of  all  schools  having  a  daily  average  at- 
tendance of  twelve  or  less,  and  leaving  it  optional  with 
the  township  trustee  to  close  schools  with  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  fifteen  or  less.  Several  other  states 
have  similar  laws,  but  usually  with  such  exemption 
clauses  as  to  render  the  law  practically  inoperative.  (3) 
State  aid  to  consolidated  schools  on  condition  that  certain 
requirements  are  met.  This  principle  has  long  been  in 
operation  in  varying  forms  in  different  states.  Minne- 
sota, however,  furnishes  the  best  recent  example  of  the 
use  of  state  aid  to  encourage  consolidation.  Under  the 
Minnesota  law,  each  consolidated  school  having  two 
rooms  and  two  teachers  receives  annually  from  the  state 
treasury  the  sum  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 
Similarly,  a  three-teacher  school  receives  one  thousand 
dollars,  and  one  having  four  or  more  teachers,  fifteen 
hundred  dollars.  In  addition,  the  state  encourages  the 
erection  of  good  school  buildings  by  providing  aid  up  to  a 
possible  maximum  of  fifteen  hundred  dollars  for  build- 
ing purposes  for  any  one  school,  on  condition  that  certain 
building  requirements  are  met.  The  effects  of  this  finan- 
cial encouragement  can  hardly  be  overestimated  in  stimu- 
lating the  local  communities,  first,  to  consolidate  their 
schools,  and  second,  to  erect  good  buildings  with  ade- 
quate equipment.  The  first  year  under  this  law  saw 
fifty  consolidations  effected  in  Minnesota,  as  against  nine 


224!  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

for  the  eleverf  years  preceding  the  adoption  of  the  law. 
Iowa  has  more  recently  passed  a  similar  law,  and  its 
effects  are  already  being  felt. 

It  should  be  recognized  in  speaking  of  consolidated 
schools  that  no  uniformity  exists  at  present  as  to  the 
precise  type  of  schools  to  which  this  term  shall  apply. 
In  many  regions  of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  South, 
where  the  vote  on  consolidation  is  taken  by  separate  dis- 
tricts, the  first  step  toward  consolidation  is  the  union  of 
but  two  adjacent  schools,  with  no  extension  of  the  cur- 
riculum and  no  grcr.J;  improvement  in  the  grading.  Such 
schools  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  consolidated  schools, 
but  are  more  correctly  described  as  union  schools. 

George  W.  Knorr,  who  has  made  an  excellent  and  ex- 
tensive study  of  consolidated  schools  for  the  federal  De- 
Consolidated  and  partment  of  Agriculture  thus  distin- 
"union"  schools  guishes  between  consolidated  and 
union  schools:  "A  consolidated  school  is  one  combining 
three  or  more  one  or  two-room  district  schools.  It  is 
usually  located  at  a  logical  and  conveniently  accessible 
center  within  a  territory  of  between  ten  and  forty  square 
miles,  and  provides  free  public  conveyance  of  all  pupils 
who  live  beyond  a  reasonable  walking  distance  from  the 
school.  A  union  school  combines  two  small  district 
schools  of  one  or  two  rooms  into  one."*  It  Is  probable 
that  the  distinction  here  made  does  not  sharply  enough 
bring  out  the  difference  in  standards  of  the  two  types  of 
schools.  The  union  school  is  often  set  up  as  a  measure 
of  sheer  economy;  the  consolidated  school  always  seeks 
greater  efficiency; 

Consolidation  has  already  gone  far  enough  to  prove 

-Southern  Education  Board  of  Publication  Number  six,  pag«? 
eleven. 


MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION  225 

that  it  is  practicable  over  a  far  wider  range  of  country 
than  was  at  first  supposed.  The  two  most  unconquerable 
Consolidation  not  f^^s  are  sparsely-settled  areas  and 
limited  by  locality  bad  roads,  the  latter  resulting  from 
mud,  snow,  or  many  very  steep  hills.  Difficult  as  these 
two  factors  make  the  problem,  however,  they  are  less 
discouraging  than  the  indifference  and  conservatism  still 
prevailing  in  many  places  where  all  other  conditions  are 
favorable.  Some  of  the  most  successful  attempts  at  con- 
solidation are  being  made  in  thinly-settled  regions  of 
North  Dakota  and  in  Idaho,  where  both  distance  and 
the  roads  are  a  handicap.  In  Vermont,  also,  where  the 
topography  makes  transportation  difficult,  consolidation 
has  proceeded  at  an  encouraging  rate.  The  chief  element 
in  the  success  of  the  movement  is,  after  all,  an  awakened 
public  interest  in  education,  and  full  information  as  to 
what  consolidated  schools  are  actually  accomplishing  for 
the  communities  where  they  are  fully  established. 

On  the  other  hand,  nothing  is  further  from  the  truth 
than  the  supposition  that  consolidation  will  remedy  all 
Consolidation  not  the  shortcomings  of  rural  education, 
a  panacea  There  is  no  magic  in  the  consolidated 

school.  Consolidation  only  supplies  the  conditions  under 
which  efficiency  in  education  may  be  achieved.  It  allows 
a  broader  and  richer  curriculum,  better  buildings  and 
equipments,  better  teaching,  and  a  wider  and  more  help- 
ful  range  of  associations  than  are  possible  in  the  district 
school.  Unless  these  things  are  supplied,  there  is  little 
virtue  in  the  mere  fact  of  consolidation.  But  they  are 
being  supplied  in  the  consolidated  schools  already  organ- 
ized, and  it  is  the  demand  for  them  that  insures  the 
further  spread  of  the  consolidated  system. 

It  is  true  that  the  one-room  school  must  not  be  for- 


226  BETTER  RURAU   SCHOOLS 

gotten  or  neglectedo  For  many  rural  children  will  for 
years  receive  all  their  education  in  the  district  type  of 
One-room  schools  rural  schools,  and  every  effort  should 
not  to  be  neglected  be  made  to  raise  their  standards  of 
efficiency  where  it  is  impracticable  to  transform  them 
into  consolidated  schools.  The  district  school  will,  how- 
ever, soon  cease  to  stand  as  the  type  of  rural  education 
in  this  country.  Careful  estimates  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  from  four  to  five  million  of  the  six  million  country 
children  will  within  the  next  generation  obtain  their 
education  in  well-equipped  consolidated  schools,  instead 
of  in  the  old  type  of  district  school.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  movement  toward  consolidation  of  rural  schools  is 
the  most  important  national  movement  now  under  way 
in  country-life  education.  It  will  therefore  be  our  pur- 
pose to  look  a  little  more  closely  into  the  nature  of  the 
consolidated  school  and  its  relation  to  better  rural  educa- 
tion. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  What  is  the  smallest  district  school  in  your  town- 
ship ?  What  is  the  average  monthly  cost  per  pupil  in  this 
school?  Compare  this  with  the  cost  in  town  or  city 
schools. 

2.  What  do  you  consider  the  chief  obstacles  to  con- 
solidation in  your  community  ?  How  may  these  obstacles 
be  overcome  ? 

3.  What  arguments  would  you  use  to  convince  an  op- 
ponent of  consolidation,  that  it  is  (i)  not  a  mere  fad, 
(2)  that  the  cost  is  not  prohibitive,  (3)  that  transporta- 
tion is  not  impossible  under  average  conditions? 

4.  What  is  the  law  on  consolidation  in  your  state? 
Does  it  need  revision?    If  so,  in  what  direction? 

5.  What  effect  do  you  think  consolidation  will  have 


MOVEMENT  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATION   22j 

on  the  status  of  teachers,  (i)  in  the  number  of  available 
positions,  (2)  in  requirements,  (3)  in  salaries,  (4)  in 
conditions  under  which  to  work  ? 

6.  Are  you  willing  to  help  accomplish  consolidation  in 
your  county?  If  so,  are  you  willing  to  study  the  question 
sufficiently  so  that  you  can  speak  with  authority  on  it  ? 


THE  CONSOLIDATED  RURAL  SCHOOti 

There  are  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time 
three  distinct  types  of  rural  schools.  These  are,  in  the 
The  three  types  order  of  their  development,  the  dis- 
of  rural  schools  trict  school  the  union  school  and  the 
consolidated  school,  and  may  be  defined  as  follows: 

A  district  school  is  an  ungraded  one-teacher  school 
usually  within  walking  distance  of  all  the  families  in  the 
territory  it  serves. 

A  union  school  is  two  or  more  district  schools  united 
in  one  enlarged  district  or  semi-graded  school. 

A  consolidated  school  is  two  or  more  district  or  union 
schools  combined  in  one  large  graded  school,  conveniently 
located,  and  to  which  pupils  from  the  outlying  districts 
9re  transported,  usually  at  public  expense. 

The  difference  between  the  consolidated  and  union 
schools  is  more  vital  and  real  than  apparent.  These 
two  types  of  schools  have  not  always  been  distinguished 
from  each  other,  and  union  schools  are  not  infrequently 
called  consolidated  schools.  This  confusion  is  due  to 
the  failure  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  term  "consolidation'* 
as  applied  to  rural  schools  has  acquired  the  right  to  bar 
from  its  classification  all  schools  which  are  not  satisfac- 
torily graded,  whose  buildings  and  equipment  are  in- 
adequate and  out-of-date,  and  towhic>»  pupils  living  at 
A  distance  are  not  transported. 

228 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    229 

District  schools,  as,  already  shown,  had  their  origin  at 
a  time  when  life  was  simple,  families  large,  roads  new 
Place  of  dis-  ^^^  poor,  and  when  education  beyond 

trict  schools  the  simplest  rudiments  was  looked  on 

more  as  a  luxury  than  a  necessity.  They  were  created 
to  meet  an  immediate  and  pressing  need,  and  inestimable 
good  they  have  rendered.  For  two  hundred  years  they 
have  been  for  rural  America  the  most  important  social 
institution  after  the  home  and  the  church. 

Union  schools  are  probably  as  a  rule  inferior  to  the 
average  district  school.  This  is  because  of  overcrowded 
Union  schools  not  conditions  and  intensified  disadvan- 
the  highest  type  tages,  with  almost  no  added  advan- 
tages. A  recent  investigation  of  union  schools  in  eight 
states  brought  out  the  following  facts:  Of  the  two- 
teacher  union  schools,  approximately  sixty-five  per  cent, 
had  both  teachers  in  one  room,  which  in  certain  instances 
was  converted  into  two  rooms  by  means  of  curtains  or 
some  other  form  of  improvised  partitions.  Sixty  per  cent, 
of  all  the  union  schools  covered  by  this  investigation 
were  using  one  of  the  old  district  buildings  which  in  only 
a  few  instances  had  been  enlarged  or  altered.  Fewer  than 
ten  per  cent,  were  offering  transportation  of  any  kind. 
This  investigation  confirms  the  conviction  that  union 
schools  are  in  the  main  mere  makeshifts,  often  instituted 
to  save  expense,  with  no  thought  of  improving  conditions. 

However  well  they  may  have  served  the  past,  district 
and  union  schools  do  not  meet  the  needs  or  measure  up 
to  the  standards  of  the  present.  Weighed  in  the  balances 
of  comfort,  educational  efficiency  and  hygienic  require- 
ments, these  schools  are  found  wanting,  and  must  give 
way  to  a  type  of  school  patterned  after  twentieth  cen* 
tury  standards. 


230  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

That  consolidation  seems  the  best  and  most  desirable 
type  of  rural  school  has  been  proved  beyond  all  reason- 
Looking  forward  ^^^^  ^°"^*-  Professor  Eugene  Daven- 
to  consolidated  port,  who  has  made  an  exhaustive»in- 

*yP®  vestigation  of  the  success  and  opera- 

tion of  rural-school  consolidation,  says:  "No  case  is  on 
record  in  which  the  change  has  been  made  back  again 
from  consolidation  to  the  small  school.  .  .  .  The  most 
searching  inquiry  has  failed  to  discover  any  disadvan- 
tages worthy  of  mention." 

I?efore  consolidation  had  passed  through  the  stage 
01  experimentation,  Honorable  William  T.  Harris,  then 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  wrote :  "Upon 
the  success  of  consolidation  rests  the  chief  hope  for  the 
improvement  of  the  rural  school.  It  is  fortunate  that  a 
device  which  changes  the  ungraded  school  into  a  graded 
school  involves  a  saving  of  expense.  The  improvement 
is  well  worth  the  trial,  even  were  it  to  double  the  cost 
of  the  rural  school ;  but,  as  will  be  seen  by  statistics,  it 
is  r-ecured  with  an  actual  saving  of  expenditure.  Better 
teachers,  more  sanitary  buildings,  less  personal  expense 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  better  classification  and  many 
lesser  advantages  are  commending  this  reform  over  the 
country." 

President  E.  T.  Fairchild,  of  the  New  Hampshire  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  says :  "Would  it 
not  pay  as  an  investment  to  bring  the  school  up  to  the 
same  high  standard  of  efficiency  that  is  being  enjoyed 
by  the  modern  up-to-date  farm  ?  .  .  .  The  old-time  coun- 
try school,  as  many  of  us  remember  it,  has  gone,  never 
to  return.  The  large  attendance,  the  male  teacher  in  the 
winter,  the  pupils  ranging  in  age  from  six  to  twenty-one 
are  no  longer  in  evidence.     Consolidation  is  the  only 


Consolidated  school  at  Twin  Falls,  Idaho.     The  building  and  the  school 
hacks  are   typical   of   the  consolidated   school   in   the   Far   West 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    231 

way  of  securing  really  good  country  schools,  and  it  is 
the  only  solution  of  the  problem  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion." 

One  of  the  first  and  most  obvious  advantages  of  con- 
solidation is  that  it  supplies  the  necessary  conditions  for 
Consolidation  ^  graded  school.    The  district  school 

allows  grading  can  never  be  graded  accurately  where 

there  is  but  one  teacher  for  all  eight  grades.  In  thou- 
sands of  one-room  schools  the  work  is  a  mere  jumble, 
with  no  regular  order  of  procedure  in  passing  from  one 
subject  to  another,  and  no  plan  or  guide  as  to  the  cor- 
relation of  studies  or  the  amount  of  time  to  be  spent  on 
them.  The  woeful  loss  of  time  under  such  conditions  is 
too  obvious  to  require  discussion. 

Nor  with  the  great  variety  of  subjects  now  demanded 
in  the  curriculum,  can  any  teacher  be  well  prepared  to 
teach  them  all.  This  is  the  age  of  specialists,  and  no 
rural  teacher  should  be  expected  to  teach  more  than  two, 
or  at  the  most,  three  grades.  Not  only  is  the  amount 
of  preparation  required  too  great  to  admit  of  one  person 
handling  the  subject-matter  of  all  eight  grades,  but  the 
difference  in  the  ages  of  the  pupils  demands  different 
methods  of  instruction  and  leadership.  In  other  words, 
children  representing  all  ages  from  six  to  fifteen  years 
and  requiring  a  wide  differentiation  in  the  subjects  taught 
them,  should  have  teachers  specially  prepared  for  certain 
ages  or  grades. 

The  consolidated  school  makes  possible  a  system  of 
grading  similar  to  that  employed  in  urban  schools.  The 
Grading  provides  P^P^^s  can  then  have  a  regular  se- 
goal  for  pupils  quence  of  studies  assigned ;  they  can 

pass  through  the  subjects  at  a  rate  standardized  through 
the  experience  of  many  schools;  and  they  can  work  to- 


232  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

ward  the  definite  goal  of  completing  a  specified  require- 
ment for  graduation  from  the  elementary  school  or  ad- 
mission into  the  high  school.  The  teacher,  relieved  of 
the  necessity  of  covering  the  whole  range  of  elementary 
subjects,  can  now  specialize  on  one  or  two  grades  of 
the  work  and  develop  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  Or, 
he  may  specialize  in  some  one  or  two  subjects,  and  teach 
these  in  several  grades,  thus  carrying  out  the  plan  of 
departmental  teaching  now  adopted  in  many  elementary 
schools  in  towns  and  cities. 

The  consolidated  school  also  has  an  important  bear- 
ing upon  the  size  of  the  classes.  Few  will  question  the 
The  waste  in  very  statement  that  it  is  easier  and  more 
small  classes  stimulating  to  teach  a  comparatively 

large  class  than  a  very  small  one.  In  the  average  dis- 
trict school  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  class  after 
class  numbering  three,  two,  and  even  one,  pupil.  Now, 
it  requires  practically  as  much  time  and  efifort  on  the  part 
of  a  teacher  to  make  preparation  for  a  class  numbering 
one  or  two  pupils  as  for  a  class  of  twelve  or  fifteen.  And 
it  is  far  less  difficult  to  create  and  maintain  interest  in  a 
larger  class  than  in  a  very  small  one.  By  gathering  all 
the  pupils  from  five,  six  or  more  old  district  schools  into 
a  consolidated  school,  each  class  is  sure  to  be  sufficiently 
large  to  stimulate  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

More  important  still  is  the  amount  of  time  allotted  to 
each  class.  The  average  number  of  recitations  per  day 
Better  distribution  i"  district  schools  is  approximately 
of  teaching  time  double  the  average  number  in  graded 
schools.  This  means  that  the  teacher  in  a  graded  school 
can  give  twice  as  much  time  to  each  recitation  or  class  as 
the  teacher  in  the  district  school.  A  study  of  the  schools 
of  one  county  where  there  are  nearly  an  equal  number  of 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    233 

teachers  in  graded  and  ungraded  schools  showed  that  the 
average  number  of  recitations  per  day  in  the  district 
schools  was  twenty-seven,  as  against  eleven  in  the  con- 
solidated schools.  The  average  number  of  minutes  given 
to  each  recitation  was  thirteen  in  the  district  schools,  as 
against  twenty-nine  in  the  consolidated  schools.  Now  it 
is  wholly  evident  that  no  teacher  can  do  justice  to  him- 
self or  his  school  if  he  has  twenty-seven  classes  a  day, 
and  an  average  of  only  thirteen  minutes  for  each  reci- 
tation. 

Consolidation  is  the  only  rational  outcome  of  the  de- 
mand for  an  extension  of  the  rural-school  curriculum. 

ry  1-j  ^-  1  The  public  is  asking  for  a  course  of 
Consolidation  al-  ^  °  , 

lows  extension  study  that  shall  not  only  mclude  the 

of  curriculum  ^[^   fundamentals,   but  also   add  the 

practical  newer  branches  relating  to  the  immediate  life 
and  work  of  the  pupils.  This  can  never  be  accomplished 
successfully  in  the  district  school  with  its  many  grades 
under  one  already  overworked  teacher.  It  requires  the 
consolidated  school,  with  its  division  into  grades,  and 
some  opportunity  for  specialization  on  the  part  of  the 
teachers. 

The  consolidated  school  is  the  chief  agent  for  securing 
new  and  necessary  buildings  and  equipment.  For  one 
Better  buildings  whose  school-days  were  spent  in  a 
and  equipment  district  school  to  visit  a  modern  city 

school  and  pass  from  room  to  room  including  assembly 
room,  library,  laboratories,  playrooms,  gymnasium,  lava- 
tories, manual-training  shops,  kitchen  and  sewing-room 
is  enough  to  cause  him  to  feel  that  society  has  immeasur- 
ably and  irreparably  defrauded  him.  Country  boys  and 
girls  have  as  much  need  for  these  things  as  a  part  of  their 
school  facilities  as  city  children.     But  they  are  possible 


234  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

only  in  the  consolidated  school.  Nor  can  the  matter  be 
put  aside  by  calling  attention  to  the  many  compensating 
advantages  enjoyed  by  country  children.  Many  of  the 
very  people  who  talk  and  write  most  enthusiastically 
about  the  advantages  of  country  life  would  greatly  hesi- 
tate to  place  their  own  children  in  a  one-teacher  country 
school.  The  one  man  who  said  and  did  most  to  hinder 
consolidation  in  a  certain  western  county,  moved  to  the 
county  seat  for  the  express  purpose  of  giving  his  chil- 
dren better  school  advantages  than  were  offered  by  the 
district  school  near  his  farm  home. 

The  cry  for  better  buildings  and  equipment  involves 
vastly  more  than  mere  pride  and  a  growing  desire  to 
Add't*  1  f  T  effect  visible  improvement.  Both  are 
ties  required  by  necessary  in  order  to  make  it  possible 
new  subjects  fgj.  country  people  to  participate  in 

the  "new  education."  The  more  practical  and  helpful 
subjects  recently  added  to  the  curriculum  can  not  be 
taught  effectively  within  the  walls  of  the  country  school- 
house.  These  branches  of  study  require  not  only  addi- 
tional room  but  special  equipment.  Where  in  the  ordi- 
nary district  school  building  is  there  room  for  a  labora- 
tory, a  workshop,  a  domestic-science  department,  or  a 
kitchen  ?  But  perhaps  of  even  more  importance  than  these 
is  the  matter  of  sanitation  and  the  health  of  body  and  soul. 
It  can  not  be  denied  thajt  the  average  district  school 
falls  short  in-  the  matter  of  hygienic  and  moral  safe- 
guards. With  rare  exceptions  district  schools  have  very 
limited  and  undesirable  accommodations  in  the  seating, 
the  lighting,  the  ventilation  and  the  lavatory  equipment 
which  they  possess.  Consolidated  schools  are  being  built 
that  are  beyond  criticism  on  these  points. 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    235 

Consolidation  has  proved  desirable  because  it  has  se- 
cured better  teachers  and  closer  supervision.  Before  the 
«        rd  t  d  establishment  of  modern  high  schools 

schools  demand  in  every  city  and  town,  with  their  call 
better  teachers  f^j.   ^^   increasing   number   of   high- 

class  teachers,  district  schools  offered  the  only  field  of 
service  to  a  majority  of  the  young  men  and  women  en- 
tering the  teaching  profession.  And  it  is  well  agreed 
that  many  of  the  best  teachers  remained  permanently  in 
the  country  schools.  But  in  these  days  when  there  are 
so  few  effective  inducements  to  lead  promising  young 
people  into  teaching,  and  when  the  city  schools  are  the 
goal  of  almost  every  aspiring  teacher,  it  is  next  to  impos- 
sible to  find  competent  teachers  for  the  one-room  country 
schools. 

To  be  sure  there  are  many  marked  successes  among 
the  beginning  teachers  in  district  schools,  but  the  very 
The  handicap  of  ^^^^  *^^^  these  young  teachers  have 
district  schools  done  excellent  work  in  spite  of  severe 
handicap  is  sufficient  ground  for  calling  them  to  larger 
schools.  The  superintendents  and  school  boards  of  many 
town  and  city  schools  ask  for  no  better  field  from  which 
to  select  new  teachers  than  from  the  beginning  teachers 
who  have  made  good  in  rural  schools.  One  or  two  years' 
experience  in  these  schools  seems  to  be  regarded  as  pe- 
culiarly good  preparation  for  a  position  in  a  town  or  city 
school.  In  a  certain  county  in  the  Middle  West,  there 
were  during  one  school  year  two  hundred  and  thirty-four 
teachers,  thirty-eight  of  whom  were  teaching  their  first 
term:  of  these  thirty-eight  first-year  teachers,  thirty-six 
were  in  district  schools.  And  more  interesting  still,  there 
were  only  forty-four  district  schools  in  the  county  at 


236  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

that  time.  In  other  words,  there  were  just  eight  district 
teachers  in  the  county  who  had  had  experience.  And  of 
these  thirty-six  beginning  teachers  only  seven  returned  to 
the  district  schools  the  following  year.  The  remaining 
twenty-nine  have  either  dropped  out  of  the  profession,  or 
were  promoted  to  larger  schools. 

A  recent  investigation  covering  thirty-six  counties  in 
twelve  representative  states  showed  that  a  majority  of 
district  schools  changed  teachers  every  year.  That  this 
is  one  cause  of  the  decline  in  the  character  of  district 
schools  none  will  deny.  And  should  one  charge  this  fault 
up  to  teachers  in  these  schools  ?  Who  can  blame  an  am- 
bitious young  teacher  for  accepting  a  tempting  offer  to 
take  a  position  in  a  city,  town  or  consolidated  school? 
District  schools  require  more  work  and  more  responsi- 
bility, entail  more  hardships,  and  offer  considerably  less 
remuneration  than  the  more  desirable  schools. 

By  closer  supervision  we  mean  the  presence  and  serv- 
ices of  the  superintendent  or  principal,  who  is  at  the  head 

„  ^^  .  .        of   every   consolidated   school.     The 

Better  supervision  -^  ,        ,   •, 

in  consolidated  very   fact  that  the  daily  work  of  a 

schools  teacher   falls   under  the   scrutiny   of 

an  experienced  leader  or  superintendent  is  enough  to 
call  forth  maximum  effort.  There  can  be  no  such  super- 
vision over  district  teachers.  An  annual  or  semi-annual 
visit  from  the  county  superintendent  may  help  a  little, 
but  in  the  words  of  an  experienced  district  teacher, 
"When  the  superintendent  is  most  needed,  he  can  not  be 
had ;  and  when  he  is  least  wanted  he  is  likely  to  appear." 
Consolidation  meets  this  need  by  providing  each  school 
and  each  teacher  with  a  competent  and  accessible  superin- 
tendent. 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    237 

Consolidation  has  proved  its  superiority  over  the  othei 

two  types  of  rural  schools  by  keeping  a  larger  percentage 

fy        ,.j  ^  J  of    the    older    children    in    school. 

Consolidated  J.,         ,    r  ^ 

schools  keep  Thoughtful   persons   everywhere   are 

pupils  longer  coming  to   realize   that    one   of   the 

gravest  problems  connected  with  the  education  of  our 
youth  is  the  question  of  preventing  so  many  boys  and 
girls  from  dropping  out  of  school  with  but  the  smatter- 
ing of  an  education.  How  the  consolidated  school  af- 
fects attendance  is  typified  by  a  new  school  in  Louder- 
dale  County,  Tennessee,  where  a  consolidated  school 
now  has  twice  the  enrollment  of  all  the  district  schools 
it  displaced. 

A  comparative  study  of  the  number  of  children  be- 
tween fourteen  and  eighteen  who  are  out  of  school  in 
localities  served  respectively  by  consolidated  and  district 
schools  has  shown  that  consolidation  succeeds  in  hold- 
ing nearly  twice  as  many  pupils  of  these  ages.  Whether 
this  is  due  to  the  high-school  advantages  offered  by  the 
average  consolidated  school,  or  to  the  more  attractive 
buildings,  grounds  and  associations  is  neither  here  nor 
there  in  the  discussion.  The  plain  fact  is  that  consoli- 
dated schools  are  keeping  hundreds  of  boys  and  girls 
in  school  who  otherwise  would  have  dropped  out.  Re- 
ports from  county  superintendents  in  states  where  con- 
solidation is  in  operation  show  that  it  is  a  common  thing 
to  find  as  many  boys  and  girls  above  fourteen  years  of 
age  out  of  school  in  a  single  district  served  by  the  old 
type  of  school  as  in  the  entire  area  served  by  a  consoli- 
dated school.  And  what  makes  this  weakness  on  the 
part  of  the  district  schools  a  still  more  serious  matter  is 
the  fact  that  approximately  eighty  per  cent,  of  these 


238  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

boys  and  girls  who  are  out  of  school  have  never  com- 
pleted the  elementary  course. 

Greater  economy  has  been  urged  as  an  outstanding  ad- 
vantage of  consolidation.     Some  of  the  most  influential 

Economy  not  the  ^."^"^'  ^"^  promoters  of  consolida- 
reason  for  con-  tion  have  held  that  a  consolidated 
solidation  school  can  be  operated  more  cheaply 

than  the  aggregate  cost  of  the  district  schools  supplanted 
by  the  consolidated  school.  For  example  Doctor  W.  T. 
Harris,  whom  we  have  quoted  on  an  earlier  page,  uses 
these  words :  "It  is  fortunate  that  a  device  which  changes 
the  ungraded  school  into  a  graded  school  involves  a 
Saving  of  expense."  Other  officials  have  issued  bulle- 
tins and  pamphlets  purporting  to  show  that  consolidation 
means  an  actual  saving  to  taxpayers.  We  shall  not  at- 
tempt to  prove  that  consolidation  reduces  the  amount  of 
money  needed  for  school  purposes  in  communities  adopt- 
ing this  type  of  school.  But  it  is  beyond  question  that 
a  given  amount  of  money  spent  in  establishing  or  main- 
taining consolidated  schools  will  purchase  much  more 
genuine  and  lasting  advantage  than  an  equal  amount 
spent  in  establishing  or  maintaining  district  schools.  It 
is  further  true  that  the  same  amount  of  schooling,  day 
for  day,  can  usually  be  had  for  at  least  as  little  in  the 
consolidated  as  in  the  one-room  school.  The  following 
table  allows  an  interesting  comparison  to  be  made  be- 
tween the  two  types  of  schools. 

The  comparative  cost  of  consolidated  and  district 
schools  as  shown  by  reports  from  the  county  superintend- 
A  comparison  of  ^"ts  representing  the  states  of  Ala- 
relative  cost  bama,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Minnesota,  Illinois,  Idaho  and  Washington  is  shown. 
These  superintendents  were  asked  to  give  the  average  cost 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    239 

cf  the  best  district  and  the  best  consolidated  school  in 
their  respective  counties.  All  of  the  consolidated  schools 
reported  maintain  a  high-school  department. 

A  Comparison  of  the  Cost  of  Buildings  and 
Equipment 

Av.  Cost  ol  Av.  Cost  of 

Best.  Con-  Best  Dis- 

solidated  trict 

School  School 

Building  and  grounds $18,000  $3,000 

Equipment   3,000  500 

Heating  system  and  plumbing 3, 500  180 

Library,  maps,  charts  and  pictures.  500  70 

Total  amount  invested 25,000  3>750 

Interest  on  amount  invested  at  six 

per  cent 1,500  225 

A  Comparison  of  Annual  Expenditures 

Teaching    $3,040  $360 

Supervision   500  20 

Transportation    1,500 

Janitor  service   200  30 

Fuel    160  45 

Library 100  5 

Transfers  from  one  district  to  an 

other  ...  90 

Insurance  25  5 

Repairs  50  20 

Miscellaneous    100  30 

Interest  on  initial  cost 1,500  225 

Total  annual  cost 7,i75  930 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 139  21 

Per  capita  cost 51  44 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  modern  one-room  building  is 
costing  an  average  of  $3,000,  and  the  consolidated  build- 
Summary  of  ing  six  times  as  much ;  and  that  the 
results  average  total  amount  invested  in  the 
consolidated  school  is  $25,000,  and  in  the  district  school, 


240  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

$3,750.  The  teachers  in  the  best  one-room  schools  are 
averaging  $360  a  year,  while  the  teachers'  budget  for 
the  average  consolidated  school  amounts  to  $3,040,  more 
than  eight  times  as  much,  though  there  are  seldom 
more  than  six  or  seven  teachers  in  the  consolidated 
school,  and  frequently  less  than  six.  The  greatest 
increase  is  in  the  cost  of  supervision,  the  consoli- 
dated averaging  twenty-five  times  as  much  for  this  item 
as  the  district  school.  Another  excellent  indication 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  average  consolidated  school 
spends  twenty  times  as  much  for  library  purposes  an- 
nually as  the  district  school,  though  the  consolidated 
school  combines  only  from  four  to  six  district  schools. 
The  average  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  best  one- 
room  schools  is  twenty-one,  while  the  average  number 
for  the  best  consolidated  schools  is  one  hundred  and 
thirty-nine.  The  annual  cost  per  pupil  is  greater  for  the 
best  consolidated  than  for  the  best  one-room  schools,  the 
former  being  fifty-one  dollars,  and  the  latter  forty-four 
dollars.  When  the  fact  is  taken  into  account,  however, 
that  the  attendance  in  the  consolidated  school  is  much 
more  regular  than  in  the  district  school,  and  that  the 
school  year  is  also  longer,  it  is  found  that  the  cost  per 
day  of  actual  schooling  is  usually  not  greater  in  the  con- 
solidated than  in  the  one-room  school.  Frequently  it  is 
considerably  less. 

But  educational  advantages  and  social  opportunities 
can  not  be  measured  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents  alone ; 
Cost  not  the  ^^^^  ^^  important,  but  not  all.     The 

true  measure  strongest  claims  for  the  consolidated 

school  are  not  based  on  the  question  of  economy.  They 
are  based  on  the  belief  that  our  people  are  ready  for,  and 
are  demanding:    (i)  better  accommodations,  (2)  higher 


.THE   CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    241 

educational  efficiency,  and  (3)  an  enriched  country  life. 
When  the  consolidated  school  fails  to  excel  the  district 
or  union  school  in  these  advantages,  it  fails  to  live  up 
to  the  real  purpose  for  which  it  was  created. 

The  difference  between  the  consolidated  and  the  dis- 
trict schools  as  to  the  distribution  of  the  teacher's  time 
is  shown  in  the  following  table  representing  the  two 
types  of  schools  in  Montgomery  County,  Indiana,  where 
eighty-four  per  cent,  of  the  rural  children  are  in  con- 
solidated schools  and  sixteen  per  cent,  in  one-room 
schools : 

Consolidated  District 

Average    number    of    grades    per 

teacher 2.7  6.4 

Percentage  of  teacher's  time  per 

grade 37  15 

Num.ber  of  recitations  per  day. ...  11  2^ 

Minutes  for  each  recitation 29  13 

Minutes  for  each  grade  taught...  117  56 

It  is  seen  from  these  figures  that  the  teacher  of  the 
one-room  school  handles  nearly  two  and  one-half  times 
the  number  of  grades  cared  for  by  the  teacher  in  the 
consolidated  school.  He  also  hears  almost  two  and  one- 
half  times  as  many  recitations  daily,  and  therefore  has 
less  than  one-half  as  much  time  for  each  recitation.  Each 
grade  in  the  consolidated  school  receives  more  than 
twice  as  much  of  the  teacher's  time  as  a  grade  in  the 
district  school.  When  it  is  also  taken  into  account  that 
the  consolidated  schools  run  from  nine  o'clock  to  four, 
and  the  district  schools  from  eight-thirty  to  four  in  this 
county,  the  discrepancy  becomes  still  greater. 

In  order  to  test  the  attitude  of  patrons  toward  the  con- 


242  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS. 

solidated  school  an  inquiry  was  recently  instituted  in 
which  the  following  were  among  the  questions  asked :  ( i ) 
What  do  you  consider  to  be  some  of 
patrons  to  advan-  the  greatest  advantages  of  the  consoli- 
tages  of  con-  dated  schools?     (2)   What  are  some 

of  the  greatest  weaknesses  of  this 
type  of  school?  (3)  Would  you  be  willing  to  return  to 
the  old  district  school  if  you  were  assured  that  your 
teacher  would  be  equally  as  competent  as  the  present 
teachers  in  your  consolidated  school  ? 

In  reply  to  the  first  question  the  following  represent  the 
type  of  answers  given  by  these  patrons :  The  consolidated 
school  provides  better  building  and  equipment.  It  results 
in  better  teachers.  Better  discipline  is  maintained.  The 
consolidated  school  saves  washing  and  patching  of 
clothes.  It  makes  it  unnecessary  for  parents  to  force  or 
drive  their  children  to  attend  school.  There  is  less  of 
sickness  and  bad  colds.  It  puts  the  children  in  larger 
classes.  The  consolidated  school  enables  our  children 
to  have  more  practical  and  useful  matter  taught  them. 

In  reply  to  the  second  question,  typical  criticisms  were : 

The  school  is  trying  to  do  too  much  work.    The  lesson 

assignments  are  too  long.  The  chil- 
Valid  cnticisms  ,  x       1         •    ^.i-  t-u 

dren  are  too  long  m  the  wagons.    The 

wagons  are  not  always  comfortable.  The  wagon  driver 
drives  too  slowly.  The  teachers  are  too  strict.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  only  criticisms  that  could  not  equally 
well  be  lodged  against  any  other  type  of  school  are  those 
dealing  with  the  matter  of  transportation.  And  it  is 
frankly  to  be  acknowledged  that  the  transportation  sys- 
tem as  organized  in  many  places  is  susceptible  of  radi- 
cal improvement.    Suggestions  as  to  certain  lines  of  im- 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    243 

provement  in  the  wagon  service  will  be  made  in  another 
chapter. 

The  most  striking  result  from  the  inquiry,  however, 
was  in  response  to  the  third  question.  Not  one  of  all  the 
many  patrons  interrogated  would 
think  of  returning  to  the  district 
school.  While  certain  details  of  the  consolidated  school 
were  freely  criticized,  this  type  of  school  was  unan- 
imously accepted  as  the  most  promising  solution  of  the 
problem  of  rural  education.  The  simple  chance  to  com- 
pare the  advantages  offered  by  the  consolidated  school 
with  those  offered  by  the  district  school  was  enough  to 
convert  all  the  original  objectors  and  opponents,  and 
unite  the  neighborhood  in  the  common  aim  of  securing 
better  rural  schools  through  consolidation. 


FOR   TEACHERS     DISCUSSION    AND   STUDY 

1.  Can  you  relate  the  three  types  of  rural  schools  to 
stages  of  social  or  economic  development?  What  is  the 
fundamental  difference  between  district  and  union 
schools?  What  is  the  fundamental  difference  between 
union  and  consolidated  schools?  If  some  patron  should 
ask  you  what  constitutes  a  consolidated  school,  how 
would  you  answer  ? 

2.  What  reasons  explain  the  decline  of  the  district 
schools  ?  For  what  purpose  are  most  of  the  union  schools 
established?  Why  are  so  many  of  them  inferior  to  the 
district  schools? 

3.  Has  consolidation  begun  in  your  community?  If 
so,  when  did  it  start?  Explain  in  detail  its  success  and 
growth.  See  if  you  can  find  where  a  good  consolidated 
school  has  ever  been  abandoned  and  the  district  school 


244  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

reestablished.     Write  your  state  superintendent  and  ask 
if  he  has  any  record  of  a  case  of  this  kind. 

4.  How  fully  do  you  agree  with  what  the  late  William 
T.  Harris  said  about  the  consolidated  school?  With 
the  other  prominent  educators  who  are  quoted  in  this 
chapter?  What  do  you  understand  by  President  Fair- 
child's  statement  that  "the  old-time  country  school  has 
gone  never  to  return"  ?    Do  you  think  this  is  true  ? 

5.  What  is  the  first  great  advantage  of  consolidation? 
Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  "graded  school," 
and  "ungraded  school."  Discuss  some  of  the  advantages 
the  graded  school  has  over  the  ungraded  school.  Can 
you  think  of  any  advantage  that  the  ungraded  school 
has  to  offer  over  the  graded  school? 

6.  Would  you  prefer  a  class  of  ten,  or  a  class  of 
twenty  pupils;  of  one,  or  five  pupils?  Do  you  think 
district  teachers  can  have  time  properly  to  care  for  so 
many  classes?  What  was  the  greatest  number  of  classes 
you  ever  had?  Do  you  feel  that  you  did  justice  to  your- 
self and  your  pupils  with  this  number?  How  many 
minutes  do  you  now  have  for  each  recitation?  Is  it 
enough  time?  How  many  classes  do  you  now  have? 
Do  you  have  time  to  make  thorough  daily  preparation 
for  all  the  classes? 

7.  How  many  times  a  <iay  do  you  hear  your  primary 
pupils?  Compare  a  district  teacher's  daily  program  with 
a  consolidated  teacher's  daily  program.  How  do  you  ar- 
range so  as  to  be  able  to  give  the  proper  time  to  the 
subjects  of  agriculture  and  domestic  science?  Criticize 
your  own  daily  program.  Do  you  try  to  outline  your 
work  for  the  larger  pupils?  Try  to  find  out  how  many 
of  the  best  teachers  you  know  depend  wholly  on  the 
question  and  answer  method.  How  often  do  you  give 
written  recitations?  Do  you  find  time  to  grade  these 
papers  carefully? 

8.  Why  do  consolidated  schools  keep  more  of  thfe 
older  children  in  school?     Give  reasons  for  the  decline 


THE    CONSOLIDATED    RURAL    SCHOOL    245 

of  social  advantages  in  the  country.  Name  three  ways 
in  which  consoHdation  may  contribute  to  the  social  life 
of  a  community.  Make  comparisons  of  the  cost  of  the 
three  types  of  rural  school. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  rural  community  suffers  from  no  greater  danger 
than  that  of  social  monotony  and  stagnation.  The  nature 
of  the  work  both  in  home  and  in  field,  the  insistent  and 
pressing  toil  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and 
the  isolation  of  the  farm  all  tend  to  an  unvarying  same- 
ness of  life  and  experience. 

While  solitude  has  its  advantages,  and  while  every  per- 
son should  have  an  opportunity  to  be  alone  with  him- 
Danger  from  so-  self  some  portion  of  the  time,  yet 
cial  stagnation  change,  variety  and  a  certain  degree 

of  excitement  are  also  necessary.  For  unrelieved  routine 
finally  deadens  and  cripples.  The  mind  needs  the  stimu- 
lus of  change,  the  shock  of  contact  with  other  minds, 
the  invigorating  influence  that  comes  from  new  objects 
of  thought  and  association  with  other  people.  Lacking 
these,  there  is  an  inevitable  tendency  on  the  one  hand 
to  settle  into  an  attitude  of  indifference  and  indolence — 
the  ruts  of  "fogyism" ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  to  become 
dissatisfied  and  morose,  impatient  of  one's  surroundings, 
and  rebellious  against  the  fate  that  binds  one  to  such 
conditions. 

The  rural  community  as  it  exists  at  present  offers  few 
opportunities  for  social  mingling  in  general  neighborhood 
Little  meeting  in  groups.  Going  to  spend  the  day  in 
social  groups  family  visiting  has  declined.  The  old- 

246 


SCHOOL   AND    COMMUNITY  247 

time  spelling  schools,  the  debating  societies  and  the  sing- 
ing schools  are  no  longer  a  part  of  the  activities  of  the 
district  school.  The  country  church,  the  common  meeting- 
place  for  the  community,  has  fallen  largely  into  disuse. 
Even  the  telephone,  the  rural  mail  delivery  and  the  parcel 
post,  civilizing  agencies  as  they  are,  have  made  possible 
still  further  isolation;  for  they  run  the  errands  for  the 
family,  who  are  thus  enabled  to  cling  still  more  closely  to 
the  work  of  the  farm.  The  country  people  do  not  meet 
one  another  face  to  face,  discuss  matters  of  mutual  inter- 
est, laugh,  talk  and  enjoy  a  good  time  together  as  people 
need  to  do.  Their  lives  have  a  tendency  to  become  very 
serious,  their  mental  horizon  to  narrow  down,  and  their 
outlook  on  the  world  of  values  to  become  distorted.  The 
country  needs  some  central,  organizing,  vivifying  force 
to  unite  members  of  the  community  in  common  interests, 
friendships  and  social  activities.  Something  is  required 
to  create  and  maintain  a  community  spirit,  a  mutual 
feeling  of  pride  in  neighborhood  welfare  and  progress, 
and  to  entice  away  from  the  humdrum  care  and  toil  to 
the  restoring  influence  of  fun  and  jollity. 

Particularly  is  the  rural  community  lacking  in  social 
opportunities  for  young  people.    The  social  impulses,  the 

e,    .  ,  ^    .      desire    for    comradeship,    recreation. 

Social    opportuni-  , 

ties  lacking  for  fun    and    amusement,    are    as    deep- 

young  people  seated  and  insistent  in  country  boys 

and  girls  as  in  those  who  live  in  towns.  Nor  can  these 
natural  forces  of  human  nature  be  any  more  safely  ig- 
nored or  repressed  in  the  one  case  than  in  the  other. 
Expression,  and  not  repression,  is  the  law  of  develop- 
ment ;  and  where  this  law  is  disobeyed,  whether  in  city  or 
in  country,  rebellion  and  disaster  are  sure  to  follow. 
The  city  is  a  constant  lure  to  young  people,  promising 


248  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

them  what  it  can  but  in  a  small  measure  fulfil.  Seen  at  a 
distance,  and  through  the  eyes  of  the  magazine  or  novel 
Social  lure  of  writer,  the  city  possesses  many  attrac- 

the  city  tions  that   are  lacking  in  the   coun- 

try. Even  the  very  dangers  and  pitfalls,  so  frequently 
pictured  in  lurid  colors  in  the  press  or  on  the  platform, 
often  constitute  a  dare  and  a  challenge  to  youth.  For  the 
adolescent  demands  adventure ;  he  craves  an  opportunity 
to  try  his  powers ;  he  longs  for  variety  and  excitement, 
and  will  not  be  satisfied  with  the  uneventful  round  of 
experience  that  constitutes  the  placid  daily  life  of  his 
parents.  Nor  are  such  impulses  to  be  deprecated  and 
frowned  on ;  for  they  constitute  the  foundation  for  later 
achievement. 

Failure  to  recognize  these  fundamental  impulses  in 
rural  young  people  and  to  provide  for  their  expression  is 
one  of  the  most  fruitful  causes  for  the  dissatisfaction  of 
our  boys  and  girls  with  the  life  of  the  farm.  They  are 
impatient  of  its  limitations,  and  resentful  of  its  monot- 
ony and  sameness.  Hence  they  turn  their  backs  on  the 
career  that  lies  nearest  to  them,  the  one  they  would  most 
naturally  be  expected  to  choose,  and  seek  occupations  in 
the  town  or  city,  where  there  is  already  far  too  large  a 
proportion  of  our  population.  Nor  would  there  be  justice 
in  keeping  boys  and  girls  on  the  farm  without  an  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  the  social  side  of  their  natures,  even 
were  it  possible  to  do  so;  for  this  is  as  much  a  part  of 
education  as  the  training  of  the  intellect. 

The  want  of  social  opportunity  for  young  people  in 

the  country  districts  is  also  accompanied  by  grave  moral 

--      -  J  dangers.    Young  people  will  seek  one 

Moral  dangers  °  ... 

growing  out  of  so-    another's   society ;   it   is   natural   and 

cial  stagnation  j-ight  that  they  should.    Boys  have  a 


SCHOOL   AND    COMMUNITY  249 

natural  tendency  to  form  in  "gangs"  and  clubs.  If  these 
organizations  are  given  a  right  trend,  they  constitute  an 
important  educational  influence;  but  if  they  lead  in  the 
wrong  direction,  they  train  the  hoodlum  and  the  crim- 
inal. 

The  young  men  and  maidens  are  likewise  found  in 
one  another's  company,  as  it  is  also  natural  and  right 

-  J      .    n    1     they  should  be.    But  the  lack  of  social 

Lapses  due  to  lack         -^  . 

of  social  meeting  meetmg  places,  the  absence  of  op- 
P^^*^^^  portunities  for  recreation  and  enter- 

tainment such  as  are  available  on  every  hand  in  the  city, 
renders  the  association  of  country  boys  and  girls  un- 
natural and  fraught  with  possibilities  of  danger.  Instead 
of  being  together  in  social  groups  and  hence  under  the 
control  of  the  social  conventions,  as  is  largely  the  case  in 
the  city,  the  rural  young  people  are  thrown  together  in 
isolated  pairs  for  buggy  rides,  or  rambles  along  unlighted 
roads.  At  the  same  time  there  is  nothing  objective  to 
demand  their  attention  from  themselves  and  each  other 
at  the  very  stage  of  development  when  the  impulses  most 
need  the  check  of  dominating  objective  interests  and  ac- 
tivities. 

The  result  of  this  poverty  of  social  opportunity  is  that, 
"The  country  districts,  which  ought  to  be  of  all  places  the 
freest  from  temptation  and  perils  to  the  morals  of  our 
young  people,  are  really  more  dangerous  than  the  cities. 
The  sequel  is  found  in  the  fact  that  a  larger  proportion 
of  country  girls  than  of  city  girls  go  astray.  Nor  is  the 
rural  community  more  successful  in  the  morals  of  its 
boys  than  its  girls.  In  other  words,  the  lack  of  opportuni- 
ties for  free  and  normal  social  experience,  the  consequent 
ignorance  of  social  conventions,  and  the  absence  of 
healthful  amusement  and  recreation,  make  the  rural  com^ 


250  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

munity  a  most  unsafe  place  in  which  to  bring  up  a  fam- 
ily." ^ 

The  school  is  the  most  natural  and  effective  solution 
of  the  rural  need  for  a  neighborhood  center.  The  school 
Th       h    1  th  belongs  to  the  whole  people,  and  can 

natural  social  easily  be  made  to  serve  the  social  as 

*^*'^**''  well  as  the  intellectual  requirements 

of  its  constituency.  Instead  of  ministering  to  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  population  a  few  hours  each  day, 
twenty  days  in  the  month  for  a  little  more  than  half  the 
year,  it  should  be  of  service  to  all  the  people  of  its  com- 
munity whenever  it  can  serve  their  needs.  With  ade- 
quate buildings  planned  with  such  uses  in  mind,  the 
young  people  will  find  at  the  school  a  place  for  their  enter- 
tainments and  parties ;  here  the  older  ones  of  the  neigh- 
borhood will  come  for  their  special  programs  on  scientific 
agriculture  and  home  economy;  here  all  will  assemble 
for  neighborhood  picnics,  lectures,  concerts  and  what- 
ever else  goes  to  add  to  the  intellectual  and  social  life 
of  the  community. 

But  it  is  to  the  consolidated  school  that  we  must 
chiefly  look   for  such   service.     The  one-room   district 

^  ,    ^,  ,.        school  can   hardly  hope   to  minister 

Only  the  consoli-  .   „      .       ,  . 

dated  school  equal  successfully  m  this  way  to  the  social 
to  social  demands  ^nd  intellectual  demands  of  the  entire 
community.  Indeed  the  community  itself  which  is 
tributary  to  the  district  school  is  too  small  to  carry  on 
well  such  activities  as  are  required  in  making  the  school 
a  social  center.  The  consolidated  school,  however,  serv- 
ing from  twenty-five  to  thirty  square  miles  of  territory, 
embraces  a  large  enough  population  to  make  possible  a 
real  neighborhood  organization. 
*  Betts,  New  Ideals  in  Rural  Schools,  page  twenty-eight.  * 


m  1 1  iSitk 

1.t 

'ijP 

The  Indiana  State  Champion  Basket  Ball  Team  for  the  school  year 
1912-1913  Wingate  Consolidated  School,  Montgomery  County, 
Indiana 


Rural    high    school    orchestra 


SCHOOL   AND   COMMUNITY  251 

The  best  proof  that  the  consolidated  school  can  be 
made  a  true  social  center  for  its  territory,  is  the  success 
that  has  already  attended  efforts  made  in  this  direction 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  commodious  assembly  room  of  the  centralized  school 
naturally  suggests  and  leads  to  lecture  and  entertainment 
courses ;  that  the  large  and  ample  grounds  are  the  logical 
places  for  picnics,  agricultural  exhibits,  and  stock  or  grain 
judging  contests ;  that  the  well  equipped  athletic  grounds 
result  in  the  organization  of  neighborhood  teams  for  out- 
door sports,  and  in  field  days  for  the  witnessing  of  ath- 
letic contests. 

In  neighborhoods  where  the  school  has  been  put 
to  such  uses,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  boys  and  girls 
to  drive  to  some  adjacent  town  to  see  ball  games,  or 
enjoy  literary  or  musical  entertainments.  For  these 
things  can  now  be  had  in  the  home  community,  and  better 
still,  the  boys  and  girls  themselves  are  active  participants 
instead  of  idle  spectators,  and  hence  a  thousand  times 
more  interested  in  the  occasion.  Parents  who  were  wor- 
ried at  seeing  their  boys  start  from  the  farm  home  for 
the  streets  of  the  near-by  town  on  Saturday  nights  or 
Sunday  afternoons,  look  with  approval  and  satisfaction 
on  their  departure  for  some  clean  and  wholesome  enter- 
tainment at  the  school  center.  For  here  there  are  no 
pool  rooms,  saloons  or  other  dens  of  corruption. 

The  ready  response  of  the  people  of  the  rural  com- 
munities to  the  school  as  a  recreation  center  has  been  well 
Ready  response  typified  in  Winnebago  County,  Illinois, 
of  the  people  where  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern  has 

organized  a  series  of  play  festivals  held  on  the  school 
athletic  grounds.  These  gala  days  are  attended  by  hun- 
dreds of  people  from  the  near-by  communities,  who  bring 


252  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

their  picnic  dinners  and  give  the  entire  day  to  fun, 
frolic  and  a  general  good  time. 

The  program  recently  carried  out  at  the  festival  held 
at  the  Harlem  consolidated  school  is  typical  of  all.  The 
Illinois  play  hour   fixed    for    assembly   was   nine- 

festivals  thirty,  and  by  that  time  the  roadside 

was  lined  with  buggies  and  automobiles  from  miles 
around.  The  program  opened  with  The  Star-Spangled 
Banner  played  by  the  school  band.  Then  came  the  march 
to  the  playgrounds,  and  the  exercises  of  hoisting  the  flag 
over  the  grounds.  The  entire  audience  sang  the  state 
song  and  gave  the  salute  to  the  flag.  Next  was  the  tug 
of  war  between  boys  of  the  competing  townships,  who 
fought  valiantly  for  the  honor  of  their  teams.  This  was 
followed  by  an  hour  of  games,  for  which  the  children 
were  divided  into  groups  in  accordance  with  age,  and  led 
by  their  teachers,  who  entered  as  fully  into  the  spirit 
of  the  occasion  as  the  children  themselves. 

Three  deep,  dodge  ball,  hill  dill,  and  bean  bag  throw- 
ing occupied  the  smaller  children.  Girls  from  nine  to 
Play-day  games  twelve  played  long  ball,  and  sheep 
and  athletic  events  fold ;  they  wound  the  May-pole,  held 
a  fag  relay  race,  and  competed  in  basket-ball  throwing. 
Boys  of  the  same  age  ran  in  a  hoop-race,  and  a  kite- 
flying contest,  a  three-legged  race,  a  leap-frog  race,  and 
a  relay  race.  Still  older  children  played  games  suited 
to  their  ages.  By  this  time  it  was  noon,  and  a  monster 
dinner  was  set  under  the  trees  on  the  school  grounds. 
At  one-thirty  began  the  sports  of  the  afternoon,  consist- 
ing of  a  field-meet  open  to  all  pupils  of  the  rural  schools 
of  the  district  represented.  The  junior  events  included 
a  fifty-yard  race,  high  jumping,  a  one-hundred-and-eighty- 
yard  race,  the  shot-put,  a  sixty-yard  hurdle  race,  pole 


SCHOOL   AND    COMMUNITY  253 

vaulting,  broad  jumping,  the  discus  throw  and  a  quarter- 
mile  relay  race.  The  senior  events,  which  were  limited 
to  high-school  boys,  consisted  of  the  seventy-five-yard 
dash,  high  jumping,  a  one-hundred-and-forty-yard  race, 
the  shot-put,  a  hurdle  race,  pole  vaulting,  broad  jumping, 
discus  throwing  and  a  half-mile  relay  race.  Expert  offi- 
cials refereed  the  contests  and  kept  records  of  the  events. 
Prizes  and  trophies  were  given  the  winning  schools.  The 
spirit  of  true  sportsmanship  was  encouraged  and  culti- 
vated. 

The  memories  of  such  a  day  are  long  cherished  by  both 
old  and  young.    Care  and  toil  are  laid  aside,  and  worries 

and  troubles   forgotten;  petty   feuds 
Permanent  results  j       ■  1  r     1        1  1  1      •   j 

and  neighborhood  quarrels  are  buried, 

and  a  spirit  of  goodf ellowship  and  friendship  engendered ; 
and  the  community  feeling  is  strengthened,  and  loyalty 
to  country  life  developed.  The  gain  to  the  schools  them- 
selves in  increased  interest  and  support  can  not  be  esti- 
mated. 

Similarly  a  certain  consolidated  school  in  Indiana  is 
typical  of  the  relations  existing  between  the  consolidated 

_    .  ,        ^     .  schools    and    their    communities    in 

Social  center  in  an  .  . 

Indiana  consoli-  many  other  regions.  This  school  was 
dated  school  opened  about  one  year  ago.     Before 

that  time  the  pupils  had  been  distributed  among  four 
smaller  districts  now  constituting  the  centralized  school. 
Even  during  the  erection  of  the  new  consolidated  build- 
ing, the  patrons  manifested  great  interest  in  the  school 
and  often  came  to  watch  its  construction.  On  the  dedica- 
tion day,  the  women  of  the  school  neighborhood  spread 
dinner  for  more  than  three  hundred  people  who  came  to 
attend  the  exercises  and  learn  about  the  new  school. 
Immediately  following  the  dedicatory  exercises  a  move- 


254  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

ment  was  set  on  foot  for  social  and  literary  meetings  to 
be  held  regularly  in  the  assembly  room  of  the  new  build- 
ing. From  that  time  to  this,  not  less  than  two,  and  fre- 
quently as  many  as  four,  neighborhood  meetings  have 
been  held  at  the  school  each  month.  On  a  cold  night 
in  February  the  large  assembly  room  seating  four  hun- 
dred people  was  crowded  to  its  capacity.  The  program 
,  opened  with  a  short  excellent  literary  and  musical  pro- 
gram given  by  the  pupils  of  the  school.  A  recess  was 
then  taken,  and  light  refreshments  were  served  from  the 
domestic-science  kitchen,  the  class  having  charge  of  the 
serving.  The  program  was  again  taken  up,  lecturers 
from  the  state  agricultural  college  speaking  on  various 
phases  of  agriculture  and  country  life,  and  giving 
demonstrations.  The  assembly  adjourned  at  ten  o'clock, 
having  spent  a  very  profitable  and  pleasant  evening,  and 
incidentally  having  become  firm  friends  of  and  believers 
in  their  consolidated  school. 

At   the   various   programs   held   at   this    school    dur- 
ing the  year,  distinguished  speakers  and  musicians  have 

been   heard   and   the   audience   room 
Social  results  ^^^    ^^^^    ^j^^   ^^^^    ^^^^^    ^j^j^   ^^^ 

pupils,  patrons  and  friends  of  the  school.  There  has 
been  no  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  many  good  things 
presented.  Scores  of  families  who  before  scarcely 
knew  one  another's  names  have  met  and  become  ac- 
quainted. New  friendships  have  been  formed,  old  griev- 
ances obliterated,  and  a  spirit  of  interest  in  the  common 
welfare  has  been  created.  This  consolidated  school,  had 
it  done  nothing  more  than  supply  a  social  center  for  its 
community,  has  well  been  worth  all  it  cost. 

The   John    Swaney    consolidated    school    of    Putnam 


SCHOOL   AND   COMMUNITY  255 

bounty,  Illinois,  is  another  example  of  a  modern  rural 
school  serving  the  entire  community.  This  school,  con- 
The  John  Swaney  Gaining  laboratories,  a  library,  man- 
school  as  a  neigh-  ual-training  shops  and  a  domestic- 
00    cen  er  science   room,    has    also    a  basement 

playroom,  and  a  large  assembly  room  capable  of  seating 
several  hundred  people.  The  school  has  literary  societies 
organized  to  include  every  pupil  from  the  primary  room 
through  the  high  school.  These  literary  societies  meet 
every  two  weeks,  giving  various  forms  of  programs. 
Several  times  each  year  plays,  concerts  and  other  forms 
of  school  entertainments  are  given  and  the  public  is  in- 
vited. The  school  also  has  its  musical  organizations,  and 
a  strong  athletic  association  which  includes  in  its  mem- 
bership nearly  every  boy  in  the  school.  The  girls  like- 
wise have  their  athletic  teams.  A  large  wooded  campus 
is  arranged  for  all  the  major  athletic  sports.  At  the 
school  are  held  almost  all  forms  of  social  meetings  that 
could  interest  a  community ;  agricultural  conferences, 
stock  and  grain  judging  contests,  demonstrations  and 
lectures  by  agricultural  specialists,  and  club  meetings  of 
various  sorts.  There  is  also  maintained  a  well-patronized 
lecture  course  in  which  the  highest  type  of  platform  abil- 
ity is  represented.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  young 
people  of  this  community  are  not  found  drifting  to  the 
near-by  villages  and  towns  for  their  recreation  and  amuse- 
ment. It  has  also  been  found  in  consolidated-school 
communities  that  the  trend  from  the  country  to  the  town 
as  a  place  of  residence  has  been  checked,  and  that  better 
teachers  can  be  kept  from  leaving  the  rural  schools.  Of 
one  thousand  and  one  hundred  cases  of  removal  from 
country  to  city  personally  investigated  by  T.  J.  Coates, 


256  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

supervisor  of  rural  schools  in  Kentucky,  more  than  one 

thousand  were  caused  by   a   desire   for  better   school, 

church  and  social  advantages. 

And  so  we  might  go  on  describing  the  work  being 

done  by  the  consolidated  schools  in  various  parts  of  the 

country ;  for  those  we  have  mentioned 
To  supply  a  social  .  i.-       i     ^  i       ^  • 

center  a  chief  func-    ^^^  ^^  "^  sense  exceptional,  at  least  m 

tion  of  consoli-         the  spirit  they  manifest  or  the  co- 
dated    school  -•         ^1  •  T^  r    1 

operation  they  wm.  Dozens  of  lec- 
ture and  entertainment  courses  are  being  well  supported 
in  different  consolidated  schools,  where  are  heard  some 
of  the  country's  most  famous  speakers.  Statesmen  pre- 
sent from  the  school  platform  the  great  political  and 
social  issues  before  our  people.  State  and  government 
experts  come  to  the  school  center  with  their  message  of 
higher  ideals  and  larger  success  for  country  life  and 
work.  Farm  boys  hold  their  corn  club,  and  girls  their 
canning  and  garden  club,  meetings  at  the  schoolhouse. 
Here  are  held  social  functions  of  all  kinds  for  the  en- 
tire community.  The  consolidated  school,  as  it  is  grow- 
ing up  in  the  United  States,  is  finding  one  of  its  great 
missions  in  supplying  the  neighborhood  social  center  of 
which  the  country  stands  so  greatly  in  need. 


FOR   TEACHERS     DISCUSSION    AND   STUDY 

1.  Do  you  think  the  people  in  your  school  community 
take  enough  time  for  recreation  and  social  enjoyment? 
What  means  of  social  recreation  have  the  young  peo- 
ple ?  How  many  of  them  go  to  entertainments  in  near-by 
towns  ? 

2.  Looking  over  the  population  of  your  district,  do 
you  think  the  farmers  and  their  wives  are  aging  faster 


A    consolidated    building,     accommodating     forty-two     square    miles     of 
territory,  and  maintaining  a  four-year  high  school 


A  rural  comnuinitv   centre  with   its   consolidated   school   and   church 


SCHOOL   AND    COMMUNITY  257 

than  they  should?  What,  in  your  judgment,  explains  the 
fact  that  farmers'  wives  show  a  larger  percentage  of  in- 
sanity than  women  in  other  occupations? 

3.  To  what  extent  is  your  schoolhouse  used  as  a  so- 
cial center?  Could  this  use  of  the  school  plant  be  ex- 
tended? What  would  be  necessary  in  the  way  of  addi- 
tional equipment? 

4.  Do  you  know  how  the  young  people  of  your  com- 
munity feel  about  the  comparative  merits  of  country 
and  town  as  a  place  to  live?  What  are  the  chief  points 
of  attraction  the  town  possesses  for  them? 

5.  How  many  days  a  year  is  your  schoolhouse  ac- 
tually in  use?  Is  it  not  a  poor  financial  policy  to  lock 
up  so  large  an  investment  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
when  the  school  property  could  well  be  used  for  many 
other  purposes  than  school  work? 

6.  Do  you  think  it  practicable  to  make  the  one-room 
schoolhouse  serve  as  a  neighborhood  center?  Do  you 
think  it  practicable  to  make  the  consolidated  school  serve 
such  a  use  in  your  community? 

7.  To  what  extent  do  you  think  such  social  and  ath- 
letic activities  as  those  described  in  the  chapter  are  a 
factor  in  making  boys  and  girls  satisfied  with  farm  life  ? 

8.  Could  you  teach  children  to  play  a  wide  range  of 
games  and  plays  ?  Do  you  think  it  pays  a  teacher  to  pre- 
pare in  this  line?  Is  such  knowledge  worth  while  even 
outside  of  school  ?  Do  you  know  the  rules  of  games  well 
enough  to  act  as  an  official  in  judging  contests? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  RURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  American  high  school  is  a  product  of  the  last 
fifty  years.  Its  forerunners  in  the  field  of  secondary  edu- 
r       th    t  th  cation,  the  Latin  grammar  school  and 

American  high  the  academy,  never  gained  the  hold  on 

school  tj^g  affections  of  our  people  that  the 

high  school  has  attained.  Neither  has  the  elementary 
school  appealed  as  strongly  as  the  high  school.  Although 
free  in  their  support  of  elementary  education,  the  Ameri- 
can people  have  been  doubly  generous  in  maintaining  the 
high  schools.  Almost  every  town  and  village  boasts  its 
well-equipped  high  school.  Especially  during  the  last 
decade  has  the  high  school  increased  in  importance  and 
power.  Its  attendance,  now  one  million  three  hundred 
thousand,  has  proportionally  outstripped  that  of  the  ele- 
mentary school,  its  curriculum  has  been  vastly  broadened 
and  enriched,  its  buildings  and  equipment  have  become 
marvels  of  excellence  and  completeness,  and  the  funds 
placed  so  liberally  at  its  disposal  have  not  unfrequently 
necessitated  unwise  economies  in  the  support  of  the  ele- 
mentary school. 

This  rapid  development  in  high-school  education  has, 
however,  hardly  as  yet  touched  the  rural  schools.    Only 

mu  !-•  L  1-1  here  and  there  do  we  find  high  schools 
The  high  school  ,     ,        . 

still  rare  in  as  an  mtegral  part  of  rural  education. 

rural  communities  'p^e  accepted  standard  for  the  rural 

258 


THE   RURAL    HIGH    SCHOOL  259 

school  has  in  most  places  been  an  elementary  course  of 
eight  years.  The  farm  child  who  has  had  an  opportu- 
nity at  this  grade  of  school  has  been  looked  on  as  having 
all  the  education  required,  or  at  least  all  that  could  be 
expected.  High  schools  have  been  considered  out  of 
reach  of  country  districts,  or  as  belonging  only  to  city 
people. 

But  this  standard  is  passing — has  already  passed  in 
many  rural  communities.  Rural  children  require.as  much 
High-school  train-  education  as  the  children  of  towns 
ing  necessary  for  and  cities.  The  demands  placed  on 
farm  children  ^j^^j^.  intelligence  and  training  in  a  ca- 

reer on  a  modern  farm  are  at  least  as  great  as  will  be 
made  on  the  average  urban  worker,  and  their  ability  to 
profit  by  this  advanced  education  is  certainly  not  less. 
The  willingness  of  the  rural  communities  to  provide  high- 
school  education  for  its  youth  is  one  of  the  first  tests  of 
its  right  to  the  loyalty  of  the  young  people.  The  four 
years  of  school  privileges  above  the  elementary  grades 
now  so  generally  available  to  urban  children  must  be 
similarly  open  to  country  boys  and  girls,  else  we  can  not 
blame  them  for  deserting  the  farms  for  the  better  educa- 
tional opportunities  aflforded  by  the  town.  The  high 
school  must  be  free  and  it  must  be  accessible  to  the  boys 
and  girls  of  the  farm. 

The  high  school  is  not  yet  free  to  the  majority  of  rural 

children,  even  if  they  are  willing  to  go  to  town  for  their 

_       ,  .  ,      ,      ,       high-school  training.     In  many  states 

Free  high  schools       ,  ^  ,  ,  ,  .        , ;: 

not  generally  ac-       the  rural  youth  must  himself  pay  a 

cessible  tuition  of  from  three  to  five  dollars  a 

month  if  he  attends  the  nearest  town  high  school.  His  dis- 
trict disclaims  all  responsibility  for  his  education  after 
he  completes  the  elementary  school.      Some  states,  as 


26o  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Iowa,  for  example,  have  recently  provided  that  graduates 
of  rural  schools  may  attend  the  nearest  high  school,  the 
district  to  pay  the  tuition  fees.  But  in  the  Iowa  law, 
reasonable  as  the  demand  on  the  district  is,  the  liability 
is  limited  to  three  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  month,  any 
amount  in  excess  of  this  devolving  on  the  pupil. 

But  even  where  the  rural  district  freely  pays  the  tui- 
tion in  the  town  high  school,  such  a  situation  is  far  from 
satisfactory.  The  high-school  training  afforded  rural 
children  should  be  in  rural  high  schools  and  not  in  town 
and  city  schools.  Not  only  in  curriculum  but  in  spirit 
and  in  teaching,  the  rural  high  school  should  represent 
the  life  and  activities  of  the  farm.  If  the  rural  high 
school  is  to  maintain  an  adequate  standard  of  efficiency, 
if  it  is  to  serve  its  patronage  aright,  it  must  take  into 
its  program  of  studies  training  in  the  concrete  affairs 
awaiting  its  graduates.  There  are  at  present  more  than 
two  thousand  public  and  private  high  schools  in  the 
United  States  teaching  agriculture,  but  comparatively 
few  of  these  have  actual  country  environment,  most 
of  them  being  situated  in  towns  and  cities.  Such  is 
also  true  of  the  more  than  one  hundred  special  agricul- 
tural schools  of  secondary  grade  located  in  seventeen 
different  states.  While  the  agricultural  courses  taught 
in  the  city  school  are  valuable  as  educational  material 
and  well  worth  while  from  the  standpoint  of  general 
culture  and  development,  yet  of  necessity  they  lack  the 
vitality  and  concreteness  possessed  by  similar  courses 
taught  with  an  immediate  environment  of  farm  life  and 
conditions.  In  the  reorganization  of  rural  education 
that  is  now  going  on,  therefore,  there  must  be  definite 
provision  for  the  installation  of  high  schools  as  a  part 
of  the  rural  system. 


Judging  cattle  at  a  rural  school 


Judging  horses  at  a  rural  school 


B^     ,  "•.!:■.     liarksdah    H.ni::-:-.    mi r'''-':i rud^ltt    of    Public 

Instruction^   State    of   Kentucky. 

Has  not  the  farm  boy  a  right  to  as  good  an  education  as 
the  town  or  city  boy? 


THE   RURAL    HIGH    SCHOOL  261 

The  rural  high  school  is  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the 

movement    toward    consolidation.      It    need    hardly    be 

T>      1  1-.  1-      1-1      argued  that  the  one-room  school  can 

Rural  high  schools        *'  ,  •  ,       ,       1 

follow  consoli-  never  support  a  high-school  course, 

*^^*^°^  nor  ought  it  under  any  circumstances 

to  undertake  the  teaching  of  high-school  branches,  except 
in  rare  instances  where  a  number  of  the  elementary 
grades  are  lacking  from  want  of  younger  children  in  at- 
tendance. It  has  been  almost  uniformly  found  that  the 
consolidating  of  a  number  of  elementary  schools  into  one 
school  has  brought  about  a  demand  for  the  introduction 
of  high-school  subjects.  Hence  a  large  majority  of  the 
fully  consolidated  schools  are  now  offering  two  or  even 
four  years  of  high-school  work.  Not  a  few  of  the  con- 
solidated rural  schools  in  Indiana,  Ohio  and  many  other 
states,  are  fully  equal  in  the  scope  and  character  of  the 
curriculum  and  in  the  quality  of  teaching  to  the  best 
town  and  city  schools.  The  rural  high  schools  in  such 
communities  are  recognized  by  the  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, and  their  graduates  are  accepted  on  the  same  terms 
as  those  from  urban  schools. 

It  may  therefore  be  concluded  that  the  policy  of  con- 
solidation ultimately  commits  to  the  introduction  of  rural 
high  schools  as  a  part  of  the  system.  This  is  natural 
and  right,  since  consolidation  not  only  encourages  the  reg- 
ularity of  attendance  that  allows  completion  of  an  ele- 
mentary course  prepai:atory  to  the  high  school,  but  also 
provides  the  type  of  curriculum  and  teaching  necessary 
for  such  preparation.  Further,  the  educational  standards 
of  communities  supporting  consolidated  schools  demand 
opportunities  for  high-school  education  for  their  children. 

Certain  regions,  as  in  Illinois,  have  developed  the  town- 
ship system  of  high  schools  independently  of  consolida- 


262  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tion.  Many  of  these  township  secondary  schools  are  of 
high  grade,  fully  the  equal  of  town  and  city  schools ;  in- 
The  township  high  deed,  not  a  few  of  them  are  conducted 
school  not  the  in  some  convenient  town  or  city  of 

the  township  and  are  in  effect  not 
rural  high  schools  at  all.  They  offer  the  traditional  high- 
school  course  of  study,  are  governed  by  the  typical  urban 
high-school  spirit,  which  looks  not  toward  farming  but 
to  other  lines  of  occupation,  and  are  therefore  not  the 
type  of  secondary  education  most  useful  to  rural  com- 
munities. 

In  other  sections  of  the  country,  county  high  schools 
prevail,  the  county  supporting  one  secondary  school  open 
The  county  high  ^°  ^^^  qualified  residents  within  the 
school  not  ac-  county.     The  county  high  school  can 

cessible  j-,g  approved  only  as  a  temporary  ex- 

pedient to  supply  secondary  education  at  a  time  when  the 
economic  ability  is  not  equal  to  the  burden  of  supporting 
high  schools  available  to  every  community.  In  order  to 
be  wholly  efficient,  the  high  school  must,  like  the  ele- 
mentary school,  be  brought  to  the  door  of  those  for  whom 
it  is  intended — and  must  not  require  traveling  half-way 
across  a  county  in  order  to  obtain  its  advantages.  Nor 
must  it  demand  that  the  pupil  leave  his  home  and  enter 
the  school  as  a  boarding-school.  To  be  truly  a  school 
of  the  people  the  rural  high  school  must  be  connected 
with  the  rural  elementary  school,  which  is  equivalent  tc; 
saying  that  it  will  become  a  part  of  the  consolidated 
school  of  the  future. 

The  rural  high  school  should  not  only  be  situated  in 
the  country,  away  from  the  town  and  city,  but  must  in 
fact  be  a  country  school.  Its  curriculum,  while  as  thor- 
ough and  comprehensive  as  that  of  any  standard  high 


THE   RURAL    HIGH    SCHOOL  263 

school,  should  be  different  from  the  curriculum  of  the 
town  high  school.  For  the  rural  high  school  must  be  es- 
The  curriculum  of  s^ntially  a  vocational  school,  prepar- 
the  rural  high  ing  for  the  occupations  of  the  farm 

^*^^°°^  and  the  farm  home,  instead  of  for  the 

college  and  the  profession.  The  core  of  the  curriculum 
will  therefore  be  industrial  and  scientific,  and  not  Unguis-* 
tic  and  mathematical. 

The  course  of  study  of  the  state  agricultural  high 

Louisiana  agricul-  "^^^^^^  °^  Louisiana  indicates  a  re- 
tural  high-school  cent  hopeful  trend  in  rural  high 
co^'^se  schools : 

Year  Subjects  ''^Pe^''  Segesjer. 

I     Agriculture  (boys) 3  2 

Shop  and  field  practise 

(boys)     4  2 

Sewing    (girls) 3  2 

Cooking  (girls) 4  2 

English    5  I 

United  States  History 5  I 

Medieval   and  Modern   His- 
tory     5  I 

Farm  Arithmetic 5  2 

Botany 4  2 

Drawing   I  2 

Music I  2 

II     Soils  and  Fertilizers  (boys) . .  3  I 

Farm  and  Crops  (boys)  ....  3  ,  I 

Shop  and  field  practise  (boys)  4  2 

Mechanical  Drawing  (boys)  2  I 


264  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 


Periods 
Year  Subjects  Per 


Semesters 


Week  Given 


Sewing    (girls) 2  2 

Food  Study  (girls) i  2 

Cooking  (girls) 4  2 

History   2  i 

English    5  2 

Algebra 5  2 

Entomology    3  i 

Zoology 5  I 

Horticulture 3  I 

Drawing   i  2 

Music I  2 

in     Farm  Animals  (boys) .......  5  2 

Field  practise    (boys) 6  2 

Physiology    (girls) 5  I 

Sewing    (girls) 2  2 

Cooking    (girls) 2  2 

English    ,3  2 

Ancient  History 3  i 

Plane  Geometry   4  2 

Chemistry 5  2 

Horticulture    (landscape) . . .  i  I 

Poultry    3  I 

Drawing   I  2 

Music    I  2 

IV     Agricultural  Engineering 

(boys). 5  I 

Field  practise    (boys) 6  2 

Farm  Management  (boys) . .  5  I 


THE   RURAL    HIGH    SCHOOL  265 

Periods                     o  i. 
Year                              Subjects                           Per                      ^*^i^l*f" 
Week ^"^^° 

Dietetics    (girls) 5  i 

Household  management 

(girls)    5  I 

Cooking  and  Sewing  (girls) .  6  2 

English   3  2 

Physics 5  2 

Farm  Bookkeeping 3  I 

Rural  Law 5  I 

Dairying   3  i 

Drawing    i  2 

Music I  2 

Colebrook  Academy,  in  New  Hampshire,  is  a  typical 
New  England  rural  high  school  reorganized  to  meet  the 
r      ■    \         t  needs  of  its  community.     Its  agricul- 

Colebrook  tural  course  for  boys  enumerates  the 

Academy  following  subjects :  English,  advanced 

arithmetic,  agronomy,  farm  mechanics,  carpentry,  prac- 
tical mathematics,  animal  husbandry  and  dairying,  farm 
blacksmithing,  physics,  horticulture,  road  building,  for- 
estry, American  constitutional  history,  chemistry,  rural 
economy  and  farm  management,  and  physiography. 

The  domestic-arts  course  for  girls  offers  the  following 
studies;  English,  advanced  arithmetic,  sewing,  cooking, 
ancient  history,  dressmaking,  millinery,  designing,  biology, 
French,  household  design  and  decoration,  household  me- 
chanical appliances,  household  sanitation  and  hygiene, 
.physics,  American  history,  chemistry,  dietaries,  nursing, 
and  household  economics. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  neither  of  these  schools  re- 


266  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

quires  Latin  or  solid  geometry  of  either  sex,  and  that 
algebra,  even,  is  not  required  of  girls  in  the  latter  school. 
Disciplinary  sub-  The  traditional  disciplinary  subjects 
jects  omitted  are  supplanted  by  concrete  and  prac- 

tical studies  related  to  occupational  interests.  The  Eng- 
lish language  and  literature,  however,  are  studied  the 
entire  four  years,  and  history  occupies  an  important 
place  in  the  curriculum.  The  study  of  music  and  art  is 
not  provided  for  in  the  New  England  school,  which 
probably  offers  the  chief  ground  for  criticism  of  the 
course. 

The  equipment  for  the  rural  high  school  should  be 
wholly  adequate  to  the  demands  to  be  placed  on  it. 
Equipment  of  the  Many  of  the  high  schools  connected 
rural  high  school  with  the  stronger  consolidated  schools 
now  have  buildings,  laboratories,  gymnasiums,  baths  and 
other  necessary  accessories  quite  the  equal  of  those  of 
the  city  schools.  And  this  is  as  it  should  be.  Where 
right  business  methods  are  employed  in  consolidating 
the  school,  and  in  arranging  for  the  bonds  and  levying 
the  tax,  the  burden  is  no  heavier  on  the  rural  community 
than  on  the  town  district.  Nor  is  the  expense  of  main- 
taining the  school  after  it  is  established  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  taxable  property  than  in  most  cities,  and 
it  is  considerably  less  than  in  many. 

The  rural  high  schools  already  in  existence  have  been 
so  successful  as  abundantly  to  prove  the  feasibility  and 

-,         ,        -  wisdom    of    their    extension.      Such 

Examples  of  suc- 
cessful rural  high  schools  several  miles  from  the  near- 
schools  gg^  town  or  village  in  the  state  of  In- 
diana carry  on  the  full  set  of  secondary-school  activities 
with  at  least  as  great  enthusiasm  and  efficiency  as  would  be 
found  in  any  urban  high  school  in  the  land.     Not  onl^ 


THE   RURAL    HIGH    SCHOOL  267 

is  the  scholarship  of  the  highest  rank,  but  the  graduates 
receive  their  full  share  of  honors  when  they  enter  on 
a  course  in  higher  institutions.  These  rural  high  schools 
have  their  literary  societies,  dramatic  organizations,  de- 
bating clubs,  orchestras,  and  all  else  that  goes  to  sup- 
plement on  the  social  side  in  the  regular  program  of  the 
modern  school.  The  rural  high-school  boys  have  shown 
athletic  ability  that  may  well  excite  the  envy  of  the 
city  athletic  teams ;  the  basket-ball  team  of  a  rural  high 
school  in  Indiana  recently  held  the  state  championship 
against  all  competitors.  Other  states  where  equally 
strong  rural  high  schools  have  been  established  can  show 
as  good  results  in  all  these  lines. 

An  excellent  example  of  a  typical  rural  high  school  is 
shown  by  the  Farragut  school  in  Tennessee.  This  school 
The  Farragut  stands  in  the  open  country  one  and 

high  school  one-half  miles  from  Concord,  a  vil- 

lage of  some  three  hundred  people.  The  school  building 
is  a  two-story  brick  with  basement.  It  has  a  complete 
water  and  plumbing  system,  owns  twelve  acres  of  land 
and  has  cost  the  community  some  seventeen  thousand 
dollars.  The  building  gives  room  for  a  full  complement 
of  laboratories  for  the  teaching  of  science,  agriculture, 
home  economics  and  manual  training.  The  water  for 
the  building  comes  from  a  large  spring  some  distance 
away  and  is  pumped  by  a  double-acting  rifle  ram  driven 
by  a  near-by  creek.  This  spring  water  is  delivered  to 
tanks  in  the  attic  whence  it  is  conveyed  to  all  parts  of  the 
building,  to  the  principal's  home  near  by,  and  to  the 
school  barn.  Drinking  fountains  are  located  in  all  halls 
and  in  the  lunch  rooms,  which  are  provided  separately 
for  each  sex.  Well-equipped  lavatories  and  toilet  rooms 
are  found  in  the  building,  and  the  laboratories  have  wash- 


268  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

bowls  and  sinks.  Shower  baths  for  both  sexes  are  m« 
stalled  in  basement  rooms  and  the  water  is  carried  awa) 
by  sewer  pipes  into  the  creek.  Six  acres  are  devoted  tc 
buildings,  playgrounds  and  decorative  flower  gardens 
The  other  six  acres  of  the  school  plat  are  used  for  demon- 
stration purposes  for  agriculture.  The  school  employs 
a  man  the  year  round  to  serve  as  janitor,  and  caretaker 
of  the  school  farm. 

The  school  offers  a  fully  organized  course  in  agricul- 
ture, including  the  care  and  breeding  of  stock.  A  flock 
of  chickens  is  maintained  and  used  in  teaching  this 
phase  of  animal  husbandry.  Although  the  high  school 
offers  a  college  preparatory  course,  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
pupils  are  taking  agriculture,  manual  training  and  the 
home-economics  course.  The  attendance  at  the  school 
has  nearly  tripled  within  the  last  four  years  since  the 
vocational  courses  were  added.  As  an  important  part 
of  the  school's  social  organization,  there  is  held  once 
each  month  what  is  called  a  "moonlight  social."  An 
interesting  program  is  given  consisting  of  lectures  along 
some  phase  of  farm  life,  music,  games  and  other  social 
features.  Occasionally  athletic  events  are  held  at  the 
school,  the  entire  neighborhood  participating.  The  stu- 
dents of  the  school  also  give  a  dramatic  performance 
each  year  at  commencement  time. 

A  similar  agricultural  high  school  was  opened  at 
Manassas,  Virginia,  in  1908.  Here  also  twelve  acres  of 
The  Manassas  ground  are  included  in  the  lawn,  play- 

high  school  grounds,  demonstration  plots  and  gar- 

dens, with  four  acres  devoted  to  demonstration  work. 
The  rural  life  of  the  community  is  organized  about  this 
school  as  a  center.  The  work  during  the  school  year  is 
only  a  part  of  the  varied  activities  of  the  school,  al^ 


THE   RURAL    HIGH    SCHOOL  269 

students  carrying  out  different  home  projects  in  agricul- 
ture as  a  part  of  their  regular  school  requirement.  The 
high  school"  fully  maintains  its  standard  among  urban 
high  schools  of  its  locality.  It  is  offering  for  the  first 
time  this  year  a  normal  course  designed  to  prepare 
teachers  for  the  rural  schools,  and  especially  to  give 
them  preparation  in  agriculture  and  domestic  science. 
In  connection  with  the  high  school  are  given  winter 
short  courses  in  agriculture  and  stock  raising  which  are 
largely  attended  by  the  farmers  of  the  vicinity.  Short 
farmers'  institutes  are  also  held  on  the  school  grounds 
with  addresses  and  demonstrations  given  by  experts  from 
agricultural  schools  and  colleges.  The  domestic-science 
classes  have  been  utilized  in  serving  lunches  to  visitors 
and  patrons  on  gala  days,  thus  gaining  practise  for  them- 
selves and  still  further  interesting  the  community  in  their 
school  work.  It  is  freely  admitted  that  this  high  school 
is  doing  more  than  any  other  factor  of  its  locality  to 
break  up  the  isolation  and  social  monotony  of  the  rural 
community,  and  replace  it  with  a  neighborhood  spirit 
of  cooperation  and  good-will. 

As  an  illustration  of  some  of  the  practical  activities 
of  the  school,  there  are  made  in  the  laboratory  each  year 
some  two  hundred  tests  of  milk  and  cream  coming  from 
the  farms  of  the  community.  Before  a  farmer  buys  a 
cow,  he  obtains  a  sample  of  her  milk  and  sends  it  to  the 
school  for  a  test.  Cream  shippers  are  also  asking  for 
tests  of  their  cream  in  order  to  make  sure  of  its  passing 
the  inspector.  Growing  out  of  such  work,  the  neigh- 
borhood has  organized  a  cow-testing  association  of  about 
a  dozen  enterprising  dairymen,  who  have  stopped  guess- 
ing about  their  stock  and  insist  on  knowing  by  means  of 
scientific  measurements. 


270  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

The  principal  of  the  school,  who  is  a  graduate  of  one 
of  the  leading  agricultural  colleges,  is  constantly  called 
Loyalty  of  the  °"  ^^^  ^^^  judgment  concerning  flow- 

patrons  ers,  trees,  shrubs  and  the  insect  ene- 

mies of  the  region.  His  advice  is  sought  with  reference 
to  the  rotation  of  crops,  drainage,  stock  and  all  other 
matters  connected  with  the  agricultural  interests  of  the 
community.  All  these  things  go  to  indicate  the  intimate 
connection  which  has  been  set  up  between  the  school 
and  its  patrons.  The  farmers  have  come  to  recognize 
the  school  as  their  own,  and  both  its  future  and  its  use- 
fulness are  now  fully  assured. 

Scores  of  similar  illustrations  from  different  sections 
of  the  country  could  be  given  to  show  the  part  that  may 
Outlook  for  the  ^^  played  by  the  high  school  in  rural 
rural  high  school  life  and  education.  Wherever  the 
high  school  has  been  installed  as  part  of  the  rural  sys- 
tem, it  has  rapidly  grown  in  favor  among  its  constituency, 
and  has  gained  a  permanent  hold  on  their  loyalty  and 
support.  Once  the  farming  community  comes  to  see  the 
necessity  and  value  of  secondary  education  for  its  chil- 
dren, the  country  child  will  have  as  favorable  an  oppor- 
tunity for  high-school  training  as  the  city  child.  Only 
when  this  has  been  accomplished  will  our  system  of 
rural  schools  have  fulfilled  their  obligation  to  the  chil- 
dren of  the  farms.  For  only  then  will  the  country  boys 
and  girls  have  available  the  amount  and  type  of  educa- 
tion necessary  for  a  successful  career,  and  requisite  to 
a  full  development  of  their  own  powers  and  capacities. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

I.    What   proportion   of  the  boys   and  girls  in  your 
township  between  fourteen  and  twenty-one  years  of  age 


THE   RURAL   HIGH    SCHOOL  271 

either  are  in  high  school,  or  have  had  a  high-school  edu- 
cation ?    Why  is  not  the  proportion  larger  ? 

2.  How  many  boys  from  your  township  have  in  the 
last  five  years  attended  a  town  high  school?  How  many 
of  them  plan  to  take  up  farming  as  a  vocation?  Is  it 
true  that  the  town  high  school  leads  away  from  the 
farm? 

3.  Do  country  children  in  your  locality  have  their  tui- 
tion paid  by  the  district,  if  the  district  has  no  high  school 
of  its  own?  Is  there  any  reason  why  graduates  of  rural 
schools  should  not  have  high  schooling  supplied  at  pub- 
lic expense,  as  well  as  town  children? 

4.  What  is  your  judgment  of  the  high-school  course 
outlined  in  the  chapter?  Does  such  a  course  supply  as 
thorough  an  education  as  the  ordinary  town  high-school 
course? 

5.  Latin  as  a  requirement  is  rapidly  dropping  out  of 
many  high-school  courses.  Do  you  believe  that  this  is 
a  mistake? 

6.  Count  the  number  of  boys  and  girls  in  your 
township  who  have  now  quit  school,  but  who  probably 
would  have  had  a  high-school  education  had  a  rural  high 
school  been  available. 

7.  Account  for  the  fact  that  well-established  consoli- 
dated schools  almost  always  result  in  the  addition  of  a 
high  school  as  a  part  of  the  consolidated  school. 

8.  What  advantage  can  you  urge  for  rural  high 
schools  like  those  described  in  the  chapter  against  town 
or  city  high  schools  as  a  place  to  educate  farm  boys 
and  girls?  What  disadvantages?  Do  you  think  country 
boys  and  girls  are  to  be  blamed  for  tiring  of  the  average 
rural  school  ? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  CONSOLIDATED  BUILDING  AND  EQUIPMENT 

Consolidation    is    resulting    in    better    buildings    and 

equipment  than  have  heretofore  belonged  to  rural  educa- 

^        ...    .       .  tion.     First  of  all,  the  building  must 

Consolidation  is         .  a     i      i      t 

improving  m  nearly  all  cases  be  new.  And  school 

buildings  standards   and    schoolhouse    architec- 

ture have  advanced  to  the  point  where  a  certain  disgrace 
is  coming  to  be  felt  by  those  who  favor  or  condone  in- 
adequate or  unsuitable  buildings  or  equipment.  The  con- 
solidated school  usually  serves  a  territory  large  enough  to 
supply  a  reasonable  amount  of  money  for  school  pur- 
poses without  making  the  tax  burdensome.  It  represents 
a  constituency  progressive  in  school  affairs,  and  hence 
desirous  of  securing  the  best  their  means  will  afford  for 
their  children.  The  consolidated  buildings  therefore 
show  a  vast  improvement  over  the  old  type  of  country 
schoolhouses. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  mistakes  being  made  in  erect- 
ing consolidated  buildings  to-day  is  in  making  them  too 
Many  still  small.    It   is  thought  that  the   rural 

too  small  population,  unlike  the  city  population, 

is  not  likely  to  increase,  and  that  therefore  the  build- 
ing capable  of  accommodating  the  present  children  of 
the  territory  will  be  adequate  for  the  future.  Almost 
universally,  however,  it  has  been  found  that  the  con- 

272 


BUILDING   AND    EQUIPMENT 


273 


274  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

solidated  school  attracts  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per 
cent,  more  pupils  than  were  enrolled  in  the  district  schools 
of  the  same  territory.  It  is  always  necessary  on  this  ac- 
count to  plan  for  a  considerably  larger  number  than  those 
belonging  to  the  abandoned  schools.  Many  districts  have 
found  that  within  two  or  three  years  after  starting  a  con- 
solidated school  the  accommodations  first  provided  are 
wholly  inadequate  for  the  number  who  desire  to  attend. 
County  superintendents  and  other  school  officials  in 
counties  that  are  leading  in  consolidation  say  that  over 

,,        ,    .,,.  one-half    of    the    first    consolidated 

Many  buildings  re- 
constructed to  se-  schoolhouses  erected  have  been  found 
cure  more  room  inadequate  in  size  within  the  first 
three  years.  In  one  northern  county  five  of  the  best 
consolidated  buildings  were  reconstructed  during  the 
year  1913  for  the  sole  purpose  of  securing  more  room. 
Not  only  had  the  pupils  overcrowded  the  rooms,  but  addi- 
tional space  was  required  for  the  constantly  growing 
classes  in  agriculture,  domestic  science  and  manual  train- 
ing. Two  of  these  five  buildings  were  built  over  for  the 
second  time  within  the  last  five  years.  Of  course  this 
represents  poor  economy  and  lack  of  foresight  on  the  part 
of  those  who  planned  the  buildings.  Architects  and  con- 
tractors find  that  it  costs  approximately  twice  as  much 
to  add  a  certain  amount  of  room  to  an  old  building  as  to 
incorporate  the  same  amount  when  the  building  is  being 
erected.  One  consolidated  district  reports  that  a  four- 
room  building  which  was  erected  in  1908  at  a  cost  of 
fourteen  thousand  dollars  has  recently  been  enlarged  at 
an  additional  cost  of  fifteen  thousand  dollars  in  order  to 
accommodate  one-third  more  pupils.  Another  district 
has  just  expended  fifteen  thousand  dollars  in  enlarging 
a  ten-thousand-dollar  building. 


BUILDING   AND    EQUIPMENT 


275 


276  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Not  only  is  the  increased  attendance  in  the  elementary 
school  to  be  anticipated  and  provided  for,  but  it  is  well  to 
Th  h'  h  h  It  ^^^^  forward  to  the  starting  of  a 
be  anticipated  in  high  school,  even  if  none  seems  pos- 
building  gji^ig  [^  tj^g  immediate  future.     For 

most  of  the  better  located  consolidated  schools  will  finally 
add  the  high  school.  This  has  been  the  history  of  the 
matter  wherever  the  consolidated  schools  have  secured  a 
good  footing.  It  is  not  necessary,  of  course,  to  provide 
room  in  a  building  now  being  erected,  for  a  high  school 
that  exists  only  as  a  cherished  dream  which  can  not  be 
realized  for  some  years  to  come.  It  is  often  possible  by 
a  little  foresight,  however,  so  to  plan  the  present  building 
that  additions  can  be  attached  when  occasion  requires 
without  marring  the  symmetry  or  reducing  the  efficiency 
of  the  structure.  Architects  gladly  take  such  contingen- 
cies into  account,  and  provide  for  their  later  consumma- 
tion when  drawing  their  plans. 

The  first  requisite  in  planning  for  a  consolidated  build- 
ing is  to  give  it  ample  grounds.  Such  a  school  is  usually 
Necessity  for  located  where  sufficient  room  can  be 

ample  grounds  had  and  where  there  is  no  need  for 

economizing  to  the  point  of  parsimony  in  the  amount  se- 
cured. The  area  of  the  grounds  will,  of  course,  need  to 
depend  on  the  number  of  districts  being  consolidated,  and 
the  size  of  the  proposed  new  school.  It  is  safe  to  say, 
however,  that  the  consolidated  school  should  always  com- 
mand at  least  three  acres  of  ground,  and  usually  as  much 
as  five.  When  the  school  includes  a  high  school  where 
courses  in  agriculture  are  taught,  still  more  ground  will 
be  required,  especially  if  demonstration  and  experimental 
work  are  to  be  carried  on  at  the  school.  Ten  or  twelve 
acres  will  then  not  prove  too  much  for  school  gardens, 


BUILDING   AND    EQUIPMENT 


^77 


278  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

agriculture,  decorative  shrubbery  and  trees,  playgrounds 
and  athletics. 

Wherever  possible,  the  consolidated  building  should 
be  of  a  permanent  type,  constructed  of  brick,  or  stuccoed 
B  *ld'      t    be  ^^^^'  ^"stead  of  wood.    This  is  not  only 

of  permanent  a  measure  of  safety  for  the  children, 

material  ^^^^  j|.  jg  j^^  ^^^^  j^j^g  ^^^  ^  matter  of 

economy.  The  difference  in  painting,  deterioration  and 
insurance  rates  will  pay  large  interest  on  the  additional 
first  cost.  The  floors  should  be  of  maple  or  oak,  and  the 
woodwork  of  oak.  The  blackboards  should  invariably 
be  of  slate  and  the  walls  finished  sanded  instead  of 
smooth,  ready  for  tinting.  In  no  case  should  stairs  be 
built  of  inflammable  material,  no  matter  what  the  con- 
struction of  the  remainder  of  the  building.  Lives  are  too 
precious  to  run  the  slightest  risk  of  trapping  the  children 
in  case  of  fire.  Fire-escapes  of  ample  size  and  approved 
type  should  be  provided  for  all  buildings  of  more  than 
one  story. 

The  equipment  of  the  consolidated  school,  like  the 
building,  must  be   determined  by  local   conditions.     It 

-,.  ^  ,       ,  goes   without   saying,   however,   that 

Mistake  of  econo-      °  .  ,  i    «         j 

mizing  in  equip-         the   equipment  must  be  wholly  ade- 

™^^*  quate  to  the  work  undertaken  by  the 

school.  It  is  poor  policy  to  economize  upon  the  took 
necessary  for  doing  the  school  work.  Each  room  should 
have  a  full  complement  of  charts,  maps,  globes  and  the 
apparatus  demanded  in  its  studies.  Dictionaries  and  ref- 
erence books  suited  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils 
should  be  freely  provided.  Supplemental  readers  should 
be  supplied  for  every  grade.  A  well-stocked  library  of 
general  reading  should  be  one  of  the  first  considerations. 
It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rule  for  the 


BUILDING   AND   EQUIPMENT 


279 


28o  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

size  and  cost  of  consolidated  buildings  any  more  than 
for  town  or  city  buildings.  These  questions  will  depend 
on  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  building,  and  the  financial 
ability  of  the  district.  Consolidated  schools  are  being 
conducted  in  buildings  running  all  the  way  from  three 
thousand  to  seventy-five  thousand  dollars  or  more,  and 
containing  all  the  way  from  two  to  ten  or  twelve  rooms. 

A  somewhat  more  detailed  consideration  of  certain 
types  of  consolidated  buildings  will  be  instructive. 

The  better  class  of  three-teacher  consolidated  school 
buildings  now  being  erected  may  be  described  somewhat 
The  three-teacher  as  follows:  The  building  rests  on  a 
building  concrete  foundation  forty  by  one  hun- 

dred feet,  and  has  a  cemented  and  finished  basement 
under  all.  The  schoolrooms  are  good  size,  about  twenty- 
five  by  thirty  feet,  and  are  lighted  from  one  side  and 
high  windows  at  the  rear.  The  seating  is  of  the  most 
modern  type,  all  seats  adjustable  for  size,  and  supported 
on  a  single  iron  pedestal.  The  assembly  room  is  thirty- 
two  by  forty-two  feet,  and  seats  some  two  hundred  and 
fifty  people  without  the  adjacent  class  rooms,  which  are 
connected  with  the  assembly  room  by  folding  doors,  so 
that  the  entire  floor  space  can  be  thrown  together  if  de- 
sired. The  assembly  room  seats  are  movable,  and  can 
be  taken  out  or  moved  to  the  walls  if  occasion  demands. 
The  hallway  is  twelve  by  thirty  feet,  and  has  in  it  two 
flowing  drinking  fountains.  Cloak-rooms  are  provided 
separately  for  boys  and  girls.  The  interior  closets  and 
lavatories  are  of  approved  hygienic  type.  An  office  is 
provided  for  the  principal,  and  a  telephone  installed  for 
the  convenience  of  the  school  and  patrons. 

Library  shelves  are  built  into  the  walls,  and  protected 
by  glass  doors  fitted  with  excellent  locks.     Enclosed 


BUILDING   AND    EQUIPMENT 


281 


282  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

shelves  are  also  provided  for  dinner  pails,  where  they  will 
be  free  from  dust  and  safe  from  freezing. 

The  blackboards  are  equal  in  length  to  fully  half  the 
perimeter  of  the  room,  and  are  of  slate.  Electric  signal 
bells  connect  all  the  class  rooms  with  the  principal's  office 
and  with  the  assembly  room,  so  that  classes  may  be 
moved  or  the  school  dismissed  in  unison. 

The  basement  contains  a  furnace  and  fuel  room,  a 

playroom,  domestic-science  kitchen  and  manual-training 

shop.    While  such  a  provision  may  be 

The  basement  i-       ^i  n  i      i      -. 

necessary  for  the  smaller  schools,  it 

is  doubtful  whether  the  basement  is  the  best  location  for 
the  work  in  domestic  science.  Whenever  possible  this 
laboratory  should  be  on  one  of  the  main  floors  of  the 
building,  and  possess  at  least  as  good  lighting  and  ventila- 
tion as  any  class  room.  The  walls  in  the  basement  rooms 
are  tinted  with  a  light  color  in  order  to  increase  the  light. 
The  stairs  into  the  basement  are  of  iron  and  cement,  low 
risers  and  broad  tread,  and  well  protected  by  banisters. 
Exits  are  provided  from  the  basement  directly  out-of- 
doors,  so  that  pupils  can  go  to  or  from  their  work  with- 
out passing  through  the  upper  rooms.  This  arrangement 
is  also  a  necessary  safeguard  against  danger  from  fire, 
and  should  never  be  omitted  in  the  plans  for  a  building. 

The  heating  plant  of  this  building  consists  of  a  simple 
gravity  furnace  of  generous  size  for  the  space  to  be 
.  heated.    This  avoids  the  necessity  for 

crowding  the  furnace  on  cold  days, 
and  thereby  both  scorching  the  air  in  the  schoolrooms  and 
burning  out  the  furnace.  The  furnace  is  so  set  as  to 
favor  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  building,  which  are 
most  exposed  to  winter  winds. 


BUILDING   AND   EQUIPMENT 


283 


284  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

The  water  supply  comes  from  a  deep  driven  well,  and 
is  delivered  to  the  schoolroom  fountains  by  means  of 
a  force  pump  and  a  pressure  tank 
which  is  installed  as  part  of  the  sys- 
tem. A  number  of  firms  now  supply  such  apparatus,  the 
whole  system,  including  the  fountain,  costing  less  than 
one  hundred  dollars  if  the  well  is  close  to  the  building. 
The  same  system  delivers  water  to  the  lavatories  and 
toilets,  hence  considerable  pumping  is  required.  In  some 
instances  a  small  gasoline  engine  is  used  for  this  work. 

The  school  building  is  provided  with  an  acetylene  light- 
ing plant,  with  burners  in  each  room,  and  an  abundance 
of  light  for  the  assembly  room.  All 
^  furniture,  shades  and  other  equipment 

of  the  school  are  in  first-class  repair.  A  full  supply  of 
apparatus  for  elementary  work  in  science,  agriculture, 
domestic  science  and  manual  training  has  been  provided. 
This  building  and  its  equipment  cost  the  district  about 
twelve  thousand  dollars  with  the  ground. 

The  building  which  is  to  accommodate  a  four  or  five- 
teacher  school  will  need  to  follow  the  same  general  prin- 
ciples in  its  construction  as  the  smaller  buildings,  and  will 
not  require  separate  discussion.  The  primary  considera- 
tion in  starting  the  erection  of  any  type  of  structure  is  to 
see  that  the  officials  who  have  the  building  in  charge  are 
thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  progress,  and  have 
such  information  concerning  modern  standards  as  will 
fully  convert  them  from  the  old  type  of  schoolhouse  as 
their  criterion. 

When  more  than  five  teachers  are  required  in  the  con- 
solidated building,  the  structure  will  then  not  be  far  dif- 
The  larger  ferent    from    that    of    town    or    city 

buildings  schoolhouses  of  the  same  size.  Wher- 


BUILDING   AND    EQUIPMENT  285 

ever  the  high  school  is  added  to  the  consolidated  school, 
not  less  than  five  class  rooms  in  addition  to  the  assembly 
room  should  be  provided.  It  is  better  to  have  six,  or  even 
seven,  so  that  divisions  of  grades  can  be  made  as  re- 
quired. 

Whenever  the  consolidated  building  required  is  large 
enough  to  add  a  gymnasium  in  the  basement  this  should 
be  done.  Recent  buildings  intended 
for  from  eight  to  ten  teachers,  includ- 
ing the  high  school,  provide  a  gymnasium  forty  by  fifty 
feet,  fourteen  feet  in  height.  The  usual  apparatus  is  in- 
stalled, taking  care  that  both  sexes  are  included  in  the 
provision  made.  School  officials  should  hesitate  long  to 
erect  a  consolidated  building  which  is  to  house  a  high 
school  as  well  as  the  grades,  without  a  spacious  gymna- 
sium as  a  part  of  the  equipment. 

If  it  seems  that  the  buildings  and  equipment  discussed 
for  the  consolidated  school  are  expensive,  it  must  be 
S  h  lb  *ld"  PS  taken  into  account  that  all  building  is 
growing  more  now  much  more  costly  than  when  the 

^°^"y  buildings    at    present    in    use    were 

erected.  This  is  true  both  because  of  the  increased  cost 
of  materials  and  labor,  and  because  higher  standards  of 
excellence  are  demanded.  The  average  one-room  build- 
ing erected  in  the  Middle  West  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago 
cost  from  five  to  eight  hundred  dollars.  Very  few  one- 
room  buildings  are  now  being  put  up  in  this  same  region 
for  less  than  twenty-five  hundred  to  three  thousand 
dollars. 

It  is  further  to  be  understood  that  if  the  practical 
laboratory  subjects  are  to  be  added  to  the  curriculum, 
larger  and  more  expensive  buildings  and  equipment 
must  be  provided.   As  long  as  education  consisted  solely 


286  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

of  teaching  children  from  books,  a  simple  schoolroom 
equipped  with  desks  set  close  in  rows  was  all  that  was 

_,  required.   But  when  education  is  con- 

The  newer  .,,.,., 

branches  increase  ceived  as  learnmg  thmgs  by  actually 
the  expense  doing  them,  further  room  and  equip- 

ment are  demanded.  A  worse  mistake  could  hardly  be 
made  than  to  require  the  teaching  of  agriculture,  manual 
training  or  domestic  science,  and  then  expect  them  to  be 
taught  under  the  same  conditions  and  with  the  same 
equipment  that  have  served  for  training  from  books. 

The  financial  burden  involved  in  erecting  and  equipping 
a  new  consolidated  building  often  appears  greater  than  it 
Taxation  burden  really  is,  and  not  infrequently  deters 
not  over  heavy  from  beginning  the  enterprise  when  it 

would  not  if  the  facts  were  better  understood.  The  area 
of  an  average  consolidated  district  may  fairly  be  taken 
at  twenty-five  square  miles.  The  value  of  all  taxable 
property  of  such  a  district  will,  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  easily  reach  from  five  hundred  thousand 
to  one  and  a  half  million  dollars.  Now  it  is  evident  that 
if  the  district  decides  to  erect  a  fifteen-thousand-dollar 
building  the  tax  rate  required  to  meet  the  expense  will,  in 
the  latter  instance,  be  ten  mills.  If  fifteen-year  bonds 
are  sold  at  five  per  cent.,  the  approximate  increase  of 
school  tax  will  need  to  be  only  about  one  mill  annually. 
This  on  an  eighty-acre  farm  and  its  equipment  will  surely 
not  seriously  embarrass  any  farmer.  Especially  does  this 
seem  a  moderate  amount  to  pay  for  improved  school 
privileges  when  it  is  known  that  the  increased  school  tax 
rate  occasioned  by  the  erection  of  new  buildings  reaches 
as  much  as  five  mills  in  many  towns  and  cities  in  all 
parts  of  the  country. 

The  matter  of  choosing  a  suitable  location  is  one  which 


BUILDING  AND   EQUIPMENT 


287 


Db-sicn  (2) 


PLAIHOFSUPERIMTeriDEMTS   OFFICE 
AND   MIDWAY   LANDING 


288  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

should  not  be  passed  by  lightly.  For  this  type  of  build- 
ing is  a  somewhat  permanent  structure.  The  average 
The  site  for  a  con-  district  building  can  be  moved  and  re- 
solidated  school  moved,  but  not  so  with  the  consoli- 
dated building.  Its  site,  therefore,  should  be  selected 
with  the  future  as  well  as  the  present  in  mind.  The 
grounds  must  be  ample,  well  drained  and  sanitary  in 
every  particular.  All  undesirable  industries,  railroad 
crossings,  dangerous  streams,  gravel  banks  and  quarries 
must  be  out  of  easy  reach  of  the  children. 

A  few  shade  trees  and  a  fertile  soil  are  desirable  but 
not  essential  requirements,  for  they  can  be  had  in  the 

Donations  not  to  ^^^^^^  °^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^^  «"  ^^"^°^^  ^"y 
influence  selection      site.    The  location  should  be  the  most 

°*  ^^*®  convenient  and  accessible  one.    In  no 

case  should  some  selfish  freeholder  be  allowed  to  deter- 
mine the  choice  of  the  site  by  offering  to  give  an  acre  or 
two  of  ground,  either  conditionally  or  unconditionally. 
Altogether  too  large  a  percentage  of  the  district  schools 
have  been  located  and  are  now  controlled  by  this  type  of 
philanthropist.  The  consolidated  school  must  not  in  any 
way  be  under  obligations  to  one  or  two  individuals.  Nor 
should  it  be  situated  adjacent  to  a  country  church  if  there 
is  the  least  danger  of  jealousy  arising  on  this  account. 
If  no  such  feeling  exists  there  may  even  be  some  advan- 
tage in  having  the  church  and  the  school  near  together. 

An  artistic  and  well  constructed  school  building,  erected 
in  a  spirit  of  unity  and  cooperation,  is  a  source  of 
Value  to  com-  strength  to  any  community.     It  en- 

munity  genders  a  sense  of  local  pride,  and  a 

feeling  of  common  neighborhood  interests,  even  if  it 
requires  something  of  sacrifice  in  its  erection.  What  it 
costs  in  increased  taxation  is  more  than  compensated  for 


BUILDING  AND   EQUIPMENT  289 

in  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  children  well  and  hygl- 
enically  housed,  and  the  school  provided  with  all  facilities 
for  efficient  work.  The  building  of  such  a  structure  con- 
stitutes not  an  outlay,  but  an  investment  for  any  commu- 
nity, and  is  never  afterward  regretted. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  How  do  you  account  for  the  fact  that  the  consoli- 
dated building  is  almost  always  built  from  better  material 
and  more  adequately  equipped  than  are  the  district 
schools  in  the  near-by  communities?  About  how  many 
square  miles  do  the  consolidated  buildings  accommodate  ? 

2.  Try  to  find  out  what  per  cent,  of  children  of  school 
age  are  now  enrolled  in  your  district  schools  and  what 
per  cent,  are  enrolled  in  your  consolidated  schools.  Make 
a  study  of  those  pupils  who  are  now  out  of  school  and 
who  have  not  completed  the  elementary  work.  Compare 
consolidated  territory  with  the  territory  served  by  the 
district  schools. 

3.  Can  larger  and  better  buildings  alone  be  depended 
on  to  attract  more  of  the  older  pupils  to  the  school? 
Why  do  they  help  secure  better  teachers  ?  Is  your  build- 
ing too  small  ?  Describe  your  home  school  building  as  to 
plans  and  architecture.    How  much  did  it  cost  ? 

4.  What  additions  or  changes  as  to  building  plans 
would  you  suggest  for  your  school  building?  Make 
drawings  for  a  one-teacher  building  and  for  a  three- 
teacher  building.  What  improvements  would  you  offer 
to  the  plans  shown  in  the  chapter?  What  per  cent,  of 
the  rural  school  buildings  have  made  provisions  for  the 
proper  teaching  of  agriculture  and  domestic  science? 

5.  Do  you  know  what  would  be  the  approximate  cost 
of  building  a  modern  five-teacher  building  in  your  local- 
ity? Try  to  ascertain  how  much  it  would  cost  the  aver- 
age farmer  who  owns  eighty  acres  of  land  to  pay  his 
share  for  such  a  building.   Then  try  to  find  out  what  it 


290  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

would  cost  to  equip  this  building  with  everything  com- 
plete and  modern. 

6.  What  additional  provisions  should  be  made  in  the 
matter  of  building  and  equipment  for  the  teaching  of 
agriculture?  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  that 
should  be  considered  by  those  selecting  the  school  site? 
Discuss  the  matter  of  accepting  ground  from  interested 
patrons  on  which  to  locate  the  building.  Why  should  the 
consolidated  school  frequently  not  be  located  near  a 
church  ? 


CHAPTER  XIX 

HOW   TO    EFFECT    CONSOLIDATION 

All  true  progress  grows  out  of  consciously  felt  wants. 
The  first  step  in  effecting  consolidation  of  schools  in  any 
community  is  the  creation  of  a  deep-seated  desire  for 
better  rural  schools.  Once  this  is  accomplished,  the  re- 
form will  grow  of  its  own  accord,  supported  by  the  de- 
mand of  the  people  themselves,  instead  of  being  forced 
upon  them  from  without. 

Supplemental  to  the  desire  for  better  schools  must 
also  be  the  conviction  that  the  old  type  of  district  school 
Factors  interfering  ^^^  "^t  serve  the  new  and  better  pur- 
•vith  consolidation  pose  demanded.  For  the  old  one- 
room  district  school  has  become  so  deeply  rooted  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people,  and  its  unquestioning  acceptance 
become  so  much  a  part  of  their  mental  constitution,  that 
it  will  not  be  given  up  without  a  struggle.  Indeed  a  ma- 
jority vote  is  not  infrequently  registered  against  the 
abandonment  of  the  old  school  when  to  every  fair  mind 
it  has  become  clear  that  the  school  is  accomplishing 
inferior  work,  and  is  behind  the  times  in  every  particular. 
The  combination  of  inherited  love,  blind  faith  and  ill- 
founded  sentiment  attached  to  the  "little  red  school- 
house"  often  outweighs  the  desire  for  the  better  ad- 
vantages and  increased  efficiency  which  only  the  consoli- 
dated school  can  fully  give. 

291 


292  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Again  there  are  those  who  are  wholly  indifferent  to 
the  school  and  to  education,  whose  only  care  is  to  reduce 
Dollars  versus  ^^^     expenditure     for     school     sup- 

education  port    to    the    lowest    possible    limit. 

With  them,  the  first,  last  and  only  question  is  one 
of  cost,  and  the  best  school  is  the  one  that  is  cheapest. 
Their  philosophy  of  life  is  such  that  they  can  not  measure 
values  except  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents,  and  they 
have  a  narrow  outlook  even  in  this  direction.  They  are 
the  ultraconservatives,  against  all  progress  in  education, 
and  hostile  to  consolidation  unless  it  can  be  proved  a 
cheaper  system. 

And  among  even  the  less  sordid  of  the  rural-school 

patronage  are  many  voters  so  blinded  by  prejudice  or 

-,  ,        .  ^  lack  of  perspective  that  they  imagine 

False  virtues  as-  .  .,   .       , 

cribed  to  district       there  is  good  rather  than  evil  in  the 

school  shortcomings    and    weakness    of    the 

little  country  school.  They  claim  for  it  a  kind  of  pecu- 
liar and  superior  advantage  not  acceded  to  the  larger 
consolidated  school  or  the  town  school.  Its  very  meager- 
ness  and  poverty  are  ascribed  to  it  as  a  virtue  which,  in 
some  mysterious  way,  is  supposed  to  result  in  a  better 
education.  Exposure  to  all  sorts  of  weather,  trudging 
through  rain  and  snow,  across  plowed  fields  or  over 
muddy  roads,  and  sitting  in  an  ugly,  ill-heated  and  poorly 
ventilated  schoolroom  are  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  the 
process  of  making  illustrious  men  and  women! 

Then  there  are  those  who  saw  the  little  old  school- 
house  built  and  have  watched  the  development  of  the 
Sentiment  for  neighborhood    school.      It    was    here 

the  old  school  that  they  received  their  own  meager 

education,  and  here  their  children  have  gone  to  school. 
They  regard  the  school  as  a  local  institution,  and  look 


HOW   TO   EFFECT    CONSOLIDATION    293 

upon  it  with  something  of  the  feehng  a  college  student 
has  for  his  alma  mater.  To  them  it  would  be  a  real 
shock  to  see  the  old  school  abandoned.  Such  a  catastro- 
phe would  break  up  the  established  order  of  things,  for 
they  have  become  accustomed  to  the  school  as  a  part  of 
their  environment,  and  to  lose  it  would  cause  the  same 
void  as  if  the  sun  should  desert  the  sky,  or  the  seasons 
forget  their  procession. 

Still  others  hold  that,  since  the  rural  school  has  been 
good  enough  for  themselves  and  their  ancestors,  it  must 
p  ..  of  necessity  be  good  enough  for  their 

that  times  children.     These   are   the   ones   who 

have  changed  j^^ve  not  caught  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

They  do  not  realize  that  standards  have  advanced,  and 
that  what  served  one  generation  may  leave  the  next 
handicapped.  They  pride  themselves  on  not  being  fad- 
dists, never  realizing  their  own  hopeless  stagnation.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  classes  to  convert,  since  a  con- 
dition of  satisfaction  with  one's  achievements  or  posses- 
sions is  fatal  to  all  progress. 

All  such  traditional  notions  and  beliefs,  and  all  such 

blindness,  indifference  and  selfishness  militate  against  the 

-     J  .J         establishment     of     the     consolidated 

Leaders  misunder- 
stood and  mis-  school.      For  the  consolidated  school 

judged  must  come  to  serve  these  very  ones 

who  are  so  thoroughly  saturated  with  false  ideals  of  edu- 
cation and  so  deeply  steeped  in  conservatism.  It  is 
therefore  no  easy  task  that  confronts  the  leader  in  edu- 
cation who  starts  a  campaign  for  the  abandonment  of 
the  district  schools,  and  the  founding  in  their  stead  of 
consolidated  schools.  For  this  leader  is  sure  to  encounter 
hostility  and  opposition.  His  judgment  will  be  ques- 
tioned, his   plans  misunderstood   and   his  motives   im- 


S94  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

pugned.  To  be  successful,  he  must  be  sure  of  his  ground, 
steadfast  in  his  purpose,  and  resourceful  and  wise  in  his 
method. 

Before  attempting  to  consolidate  the  schools  of  a  com- 
munity the  leaders  in  charge  should  make  certain  that 

Conditions  funda-  ^^°  fundamental  questions  can  be 
mental  to  con-  answered    in    the    affirmative :      ( i ) 

solidation  -y^jii  ^^^   physical   conditions    in   the 

territory  concerned  permit  the  transportation  of  pupils 
who  live  beyond  easy  walking  distances ;  and  (2)  is  it 
possible  for  the  community  to  meet  the  financial  obliga- 
tions necessary  for  the  building  and  equipping  of  the 
new  school?  It  is  also  important  to  know,  (3)  whether 
the  right  to  abandon  the  single-teacher  schools,  to  levy 
necessary  taxes,  to  build  and  equip  the  new  school  rests 
with  district,  township  or  county  officials,  or  with  the 
voters  of  the  school  units  concerned. 

Much  time  and  effort  are  wasted,  and  occasionally 
harm  done  by  opening  a  campaign  for  consolidation 
-J.     ,       r  when  the  conditions  are  not  ripe  for 

tempting  the  im-  such  a  movement,  or  when  the  situa- 
possible  ^Jqj^  demands  different  methods  from 

those  employed.  There  are  certain  districts  here  and 
there  that  will  not  at  present  admit  of  consolidation.  The 
topography  may  be  such  that  transportation  is  out  of  the 
question,  and  the  children  would  be  forced  to  walk  long 
distances  or  depend  on  furnishing  their  own  conveyance. 
In  either  instance  the  consolidated  school  would  operate 
under  a  severe  handicap,  and  could  not  hope  to  be  wholly 
successful.  Bad  roads  are  also  a  serious  obstacle  in 
some  regions,  but  are  not  prohibitive,  as  roads  can  be 
and  will  be  improved. 

There  are  districts  here  and  there  which  are  not  finan< 


HOW   TO    EFFECT    CONSOLIDATION    295 

cially  able  through  local  taxation  to  raise  the  amount 

of  money  required  to  build  and  equip  a  good  consoli- 

_,  dated  school.   It  is  undoubtedly  better 

The  necessary  ,.      .  ... 

financial  foun-  for  these   districts  to   continue  their 

^^*^°^  local  school  than  to  attempt  a  consoli- 

dated school  with  too  limited  an  amount  of  money.  In 
states  where  the  county,  or  perhaps  even  the  township, 
is  made  the  unit  of  taxation,  such  a  financial  handicap 
is  seldom  met.  Where  the  state  also  aids  the  consolidated 
school  there  are  few  communities  that  can  not  build 
and  equip  consolidated  schools  without  excessive  taxa- 
tion. 

The  difficulties  to  be  met  in  effecting  consolidation  are 
always  greater  where  small  individual  districts  control 
their  own  schools.  A  study  of  the  consolidation  move-* 
ment  clearly  shows  that  this  type  of  school  is  growing 
most  rapidly  in  the  states  where  a  larger  unit,  such  as 
the  township  or  county,  is  made  the  basis  of  school  or- 
ganization. 

Where  the  law  provides  that  each  district  shall  vote 
separately  on  the  abandoning  of  the  local  school  and  the 
County  or  town-  levying  of  the  tax  for  the  new  school, 
ship  better  unit  the  problem  is  greatly  complicated, 
than  local  district  Consequently  the  campaign  waged 
must  be  different  from  what  it  is  where  the  entire  town- 
ship or  county  is  taken  as  the  unit.  For  it  is  evident  that 
where  the  project  for  consolidation  must  receive  a  major- 
ity vote  in  each  of  the  small  districts  concerned,  a  few  ob- 
jectors in  any  one  district  may  defeat  the  proposition  for 
the  whole  proposed  territory.  In  such  a  case,  the  cam- 
paign must  be  very  thorough  and  complete  throughout 
the  entire  community.  No  objector  must  be  overlooked, 
and  nothing  taken  for  granted. 


296  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

Similar  problems  arise  in  connection  with  arranging 
for  the  details  of  erecting  the  building  and  equipping 
it.  If  those  who  are  to  have  this  responsibility  in 
charge  are  chosen  by  small  districts,  jealousies  are  likely 
to  arise  which  may  jeopardize  the  success  of  the  under- 
taking. From  every  point  of  view,  therefore,  it  is  pref- 
erable to  employ  the  entire  area  to  be  included  in  the 
consolidated  school  as  the  unit  of  organization,  taxa- 
tion and  administration. 

Consolidated  schools  can  seldom  be  established  with- 
out a  preliminary  campaign  of  education,  agitation  and 
A  preliminary  inspiration.     For  the  new  is  always 

campaign  nee-  questioned,   and   the   old   always   ac- 

^^^^^y  cepted  as  a  matter  of  course.     The 

district  school  is  already  in  possession  of  the  field,  and 
this  is  decidedly  in  its  favor.  It  will  not  be  displaced  by 
the  resolutions  of  educational  conventions,  the  recom- 
mendations of  educational  experts,  or  permissive  laws 
by  legislatures.  Its  elimination  will  require  the  massing 
of  every  influence  that  can  be  brought  to  bear.  And 
all  who  enter  upon  this  campaign,  having  once  assured 
themselves  that  consolidation  is  feasible  in  their  commu- 
nity, should  enlist  to  serve  not  for  a  month  or  a  year,  but 
until  victory  is  accomplished. 

The   natural   leader   and   commander-in-chief  of  the 

campaign  for  consolidation  is  the  county  superintendent 

^  .  together  with  his  district  superintend- 

County  superin-  ,       t^       •       ,  •   ,       i 

tendent  natural  ^^ts.    tor  m  the  county  supermtend- 

leader  of  cam-  ent    should   be    found    both    the    in- 

15  o  I  or  fl 

fluence  and  the  knowledge  that  are 
needed.  His  office  gives  him  authority,  and  he  is  in  posi- 
tion to  know  the  facts  concerning  the  possibility  of  public 
transportation  and  the  financial  ability  of  the  people  to 


HOW  TO   EFFECT   CONSOLIDATION    295^ 

build  and  support  the  new  school.  He  also  will  under- 
stand the  legal  requirements  to  be  carried  out  in  passing 
over  from  one  system  to  another.  When  the  superintend- 
ent finds  conditions  favorable  to  the  change,  he  has  rea- 
son and  argument  all  on  his  side,  and  it  is  only  left  for 
him  to  make  his  campaign  tactfully  and  fearlessly. 

Before  beginning  the  active  campaign,  there  are  three 
groups  of  influences  that  should  be  earnestly  and  sepa- 

Three  important  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  (/)  *^^  teachers,^  (2)' 
groups  of  in-  the    school   officials   m  the   territory 

fluences  concerned,  and  (3)  a  few  important 

and  influential  patrons  in  each  of  the  local  districts.  With 
all  three  of  these  forces  favorable,  the  problem  is  usually 
an  easy  one. 

The  teachers  can  probably  do  most  of  all  to  help  or 
hinder  the  consolidation  movement.    For  they  are  in  im- 

rr      u  ^  mediate  contact  with  the  voters,  and 

Teachers  most  .       .  .         ' 

powerful  influence  their  judgment  and  advice  carry 
for  consolidation  weight.  The  wise  leader  will  there- 
fore seek  to  obtain  the  support  and  cooperation  of  the 
teacher  before  he  launches  his  campaign  among  the 
voters.  If  trouble  is  taken  to  see  that  teachers  fully  un- 
derstand consolidation,  with  all  its  problems  and  advan- 
tages, it  is  easy  to  obtain  their  enthusiastic  help  for  the 
project.  The  opposition  which  teachers  occasionally 
make  to  consolidation  always  comes  from  lack  of  infor- 
mation. They  do  not  know  what  a  consolidated  school 
is  like,  nor  its  advantages  to  both' pupils  and  teachers. 
Some  are  opposed  to  giving  up  the  district  school  be- 
cause they  fear  that  with  the  new  school  will  come  higher 
standards,  more  exacting  supervision,  or  perhaps  even 
loss  of  position  because  a  smaller  number  of  teachers 
might  be  required.   Others  may  oppose  a  change  because 


^9^  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOL^ 

they  are  now  permitted  in  connection  with  the  httle  dis- 
trict school  to  carry  on  some  remunerative  occupation 
while  teaching-,  and  they  fear  this  will  be  impossible 
under  new  conditions. 

Teachers,  therefore,  need  to  be  instructed  and  con- 
vinced with  reference  to  consolidation.  This  can  often 
be  accomplished  by  having  a  part  of  the  county  institute 
and  convention  programs  given  over  to  discussions  of 
consolidation.  The  county  superintendent  can  here  urge 
the  cause,  and  analyze  the  local  conditions  demanding  a 
change.  Speakers  can  be  brought  in  who  have  had  ex- 
perience in  effecting  consolidation,  and  who  know  its 
difficulties  and  advantages.  In  one  southern  county  al- 
most all  the  teachers  were  against  consolidation  until  a 
superintendent  who  had  successfully  consolidated  the 
schools  of  his  county  in  another  state  had  been  brought 
before  the  teachers  with  facts,  figures  and  lantern  slides 
to  show  them  what  the  movement  actually  means.  At  the 
end  of  a  week,  hardly  a  teacher  was  left  who  was  not 
an  ardent  advocate  of  the  new  type  of  school.  In  another 
county  the  teachers  were  against  consolidation  because 
they  had  been  told  that  only  about  one-half  the  number 
of  teachers  needed  under  the  district  system  would  be 
required  in  the  consolidated  schools.  When  they  were 
shown  that  Montgomery  County,  Indiana,  the  most  com- 
pletely consolidated  county  in  the  United  States,  is  now 
employing  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  rural  teachers  as 
against  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  under  the  old  sys- 
tem, their  opposition  disappeared.  Until  it  is  proved 
to  them,  they  do  not  understand  that  the  great  increase 
in  attendance  and  the  addition  of  high-school  grades  will 
fully  compensate  for  the  closing  of  the  smaller  schools. 

Not  infrequently  the  better  and  more  influential  teach- 


HOW   TO   EFFECT    CONSOLIDATION    299 

ers,  when  they  come  fully  to  understand  the  advantages 

of  teaching  in  a  consolidated  school,  are  willing  to  give 

up  their  places  in  district  schools  and 

as^tc  o^nce^thejTun-  S^  *°  ^^^  consolidated  school  for  a 
derstand  con-  lower  salary,  if  need  be.     The  satis- 

so  I  a  ion  faction  of  being  able  to  do  both  them- 

selves and  the  pupils  full  justice  means  more  than  the 
convenience  of  the  near-by  small  school,  or  any  other 
selfish  consideration.  One  of  the  best  teachers  in  a  west- 
ern consolidated  school  was  offered  eighty  dollars  a 
month  to  teach  a  district  school  in  an  adjoining  town- 
ship. He  was  receiving  but  sixty-five  dollars  a  month 
in  the  consolidated  school,  so  he  decided  to  look  the 
ground  over.  But  when  he  saw  the  poor  building,  the 
scanty  equipment  and  the  overcrowded  program  of  the 
little  school,  he  reported  to  his  would-be  employer  that 
he  would  not  exchange  schools  at  double  the  salary.  So 
he  returned  to  his  old  position,  satisfied  with  the  lower 
salary  and  better  conditions. 

A  typical  instance  occurring  in  a  western  state  illus- 
trates the  influence  of  strong  teachers  in  the  matter  of 
The  good  teacher  consolidation.  A  young  teacher  went 
easily  makes  to  a  district  school  in  a  community 

converts  where  consolidation  had  been  agitated 

but  had  failed.  Nearly  every  adult  was  opposed  to  con- 
solidation, and  especially  to  the  transportation  of  children. 
This  young  woman  taught  so  good  a  school,  and  secured 
such  a  hold  on  the  community  that  a  petition  was  circu- 
lated and  signed  by  every  parent  asking  for  her  return 
a  second  year.  But  she  heartily  thanked  the  patrons  for 
their  cooperation,  and  explained  that  she  could  not  re- 
turn. She  told  them  she  had  been  offered  a  position  in 
an  adjoining  consolidated  school  and,  as  her  heart  was  in 


300  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

this  movement,  had  decided  to  accept  the  place.  The 
sequel  was  that  the  patrons  of  the  district  school  came 
to  realize  the  handicap  under  which  their  school  was  la- 
boring, and  before  the  next  school  year  opened  had  car- 
ried a  proposition  to  abandon  their  district  school  and 
transport  the  children  to  the  consolidated  school  where 
their  favorite  teacher  had  gone. 

A  personal  canvass  and  an  appeal  for  the  support  of  a 
few  local  leaders  of  prominence  and  intelligence  is  usu- 
Securing  the  ^^^Y   ^^^   ^^^^   ^^   necessary   to   secure 

help  of  leaders  their   cooperation,   provided   the   ad- 

vantages of  the  new  school  are  made  clear  to  them, 
and  they  are  convinced  of  the  feasibility  of  the 
transportation  system  and  the  ability  of  the  district  to 
finance  the  proposition.  Sometimes  the  school  officers 
are  opposed  to  the  change.  Then  it  is  necessary  to  bring 
to  bear  all  the  persuasion  of  the  teachers  and  influential 
neighbors  to  overcome  this  handicap. 

When  the  actual  campaign  among  the  voters  begins, 
and  ordinarily  there  must  be  a  campaign  that  carries  the 
A  t    t    be       niatter  to  every  voter  in  the  district, 

used  in  the  certain  lines  of  argument  need  to  be 

campaign  emphasized:  Many  are  afraid  of  the 

cost ;  yet  it  can  be  shown  that,  if  the  consolidated  school 
be  content  with  the  advantages  offered  in  the  district 
school,  the  new  system  would  usually  cost  less  than  the 
old.  Economy  is  not,  however,  the  reason  for  consolidat- 
ing schools;  the  chief  argument  for  consolidation  is 
eMciency.  It  can  be  shown  that,  just  as  the  cost  of  a  mod- 
ern reaper  over  the  old  cradle  and  rake  is  a  paying  in- 
vestment, so  is  the  cost  of  a  first-class,  well-equipped,  con- 
solidated school  over  the  small  one-room  school.  It  can 
also  be  made  clear  that  the  one-room  schools  can  not  be 


HOW   TO    EFFECT    CONSOLIDATION    301 

built  and  maintained  so  cheaply  now  as  in  former  years ; 
and  that  the  compulsory  education  laws  which  are  re- 
quiring so  many  children  to  be  kept  in  school  are  also 
compelling  school  authorities  to  provide  better  buildings, 
more  equipment,  higher  class  teachers,  a  more  liberal 
curriculum  and  improved  sanitary  conditions.  Any  of 
these  new  demands  is  sufficient  within  itself  to  justify 
the  giving  up  of  the  old  district  school  for  the  consoli- 
dated school.  The  rural  teacher  is  already  overworked 
with  classes  and  the  number  of  different  subjects  taught. 
He  has  been  losing  some  of  the  very  best  pupils  to  the 
city  and  the  town  schools  because  of  the  fact  that  these 
pupils  could  not  afford  to  remain  in  the  home  school 
where  the  teacher  could  find  time  to  give  them  but  little 
help  or  attention.  Others  have  dropped  out  of  school 
altogether  with  the  belief  that  they  can  get  more  practi- 
cal help  from  other  sources  than  it  is  possible  for  them 
to  receive  in  the  inefficient  district  schools.  Still  others 
are  leaving  these  schools  year  after  year  for  the  simple 
reason  that  they  have  found  in  them  too  many  inexperi- 
enced and  unprepared  teachers.  All  these  things  are  not 
theory,  but  every-day  occurrences.  The  one-room  schools 
are  no  longer  attracting  and  holding  the  larger  boys  and 
girls.  Neither  are  they  attracting  or  holding  the  better 
and  more  experienced  teachers. 

A  questionnaire  was  recently  sent  to  several  county 
superintendents  in  different  states  for  the  purpose  of  as- 

„     ,         ^  .  certaining    whether    these    counties 

Fundamental  , ,  ,  ,    •  •         j 

weaknesses  in  were  able  to  keep  their  experienced 

district  school  teachers  in  the  one-room  schools,  and 

whether  the  one-room  schools  were  able  to  attract  and 
hold  a  fair  proportion  of  their  boys  and  girls,  es,pecia% 


302  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

the  larger  ones.    The  answers  to  these  questions  were 
almost  unanimously  in  the  negative. 

With  reference  to  the  teachers,  three  of  the  leading 
county  superintendents  of  Indiana,  located  in  different 
parts  of  the  state,  gave  the  following  data :  Superintend- 
ent John  F.  Hains,  of  Hamilton  County,  reported  that 
39  per  cent,  of  his  district  teachers  at  that  time  were  be- 
ginners and  that  42  per  cent,  of  the  remaining  61  per 
cent,  were  teaching  with  less  than  three  years'  experi- 
ence. At  the  same  time  in  the  consolidated  and  city 
schools  of  that  county,  but  3  per  cent,  of  all  the  teachers 
were  beginners,  and  only  9  per  cent,  were  teaching  with 
less  than  three  years'  experience.  Superintendent  Richard 
Park,  of  Sullivan  County,  reported  that  38  per  cent,  of  his 
district  teachers  were  teaching  their  first  school,  and  that 
only  a  little  over  20  per  cent,  were  teaching  with  three 
or  more  years'  experience.  In  his  consolidated,  town  and 
city  schools,  but  7  per  cent,  were  teaching  as  beginners, 
and  only  12  per  cent,  with  less  than  three  years'  experi- 
ence. Superintendent  Jesse  C.  Webb,  of  Johnson  County, 
reported  that  27  per  cent,  of  his  one-room  teachers  were 
beginners,  and  that  less  than  25  per  cent,  of  them  were 
teaching  with  three  or  more  years  of  experience.  In  this 
county  only  5  per  cent,  of  the  teachers  in  the  consolidated, 
town  and  city  schools  were  teaching  as  beginners  and  but 
18  per  cent,  with  less  than  three  years  of  experience. 
When  the  fact  is  considered  that  the  foregoing  figures 
for  the  consolidated,  town  and  city  schools  include  not 
only  the  elementary,  but  the  high-school  teachers  as  well, 
it  becomes  even  more  convincing.  For  the  high  schools, 
in  order  to  secure  college  and  university  graduates,  must 
take  a  larger  number  of  beginners  than  they  otherwise 


HOW  TO   EFFECT   CONSOLIDATION    303 

would.  Aside  from  this  they  lose  a  larger  per  cent,  of 
their  teachers  to  the  commercial  and  professional  fields 
than  do  the  rural  schools. 

In  like  manner  it  has  been  shown  by  recent  studies 
that  the  one-room  school  can  not  compete  with  the  con- 
«        IM  t  d  solidated    school    in    attracting    and 

schools  also  hold  holding  its  pupils.  The  results  of  an 
pupils  better  investigation    made    in    Montgomery 

County,  Indiana,  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  illustration,  since 
this  county  has  but  few  one-room  schools  left,  and  all 
these  are  larger  and  stronger  than  the  average  district 
school.  In  addition,  a  special  effort  has  been  made  for 
the  last  several  years  to  keep  as  many  experienced  teach- 
ers in  the  district  schools  as  possible.  These  schools 
have  had,  also,  the  stimulus  from  near-by  consolidated 
schools,  which  has  a  tendency  to  make  them  better  and 
more  efficient.  In  spite  of  such  favorable  conditions, 
the  small  schools,  at  the  time  of  this  investigation,  were 
enrolling  but  twenty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  children  over 
fourteen  years  of  age  who  had  not  completed  the  ele- 
mentary work.  And  only  ten  and  four-tenths  per  cent, 
of  those  from  this  territory  who  were  eligible  for  high 
school  were  enrolled.  The  consolidated  schools  in  the 
same  territory  were  enrolling  seventy-one  per  cent,  of  the 
children  over  fourteen  who  had  not  finished  the  com- 
mon school,  and  sixty-three  and  eight-tenths  per  cent,  of 
those  from  the  consolidated  territory  who  were  eligible 
for  the  high  school  were  enrolled  either  in  the  high  school 
of  the  home  school  or  elsewhere.  The  reason  for  this 
great  difference  can  be  made  clear  enough  to  school 
officers  and  patrons. 

The  one-room  school  is  not  only  unable  to  attract  and 
hold  a  reasonable  proportion  of  the  pupils  for  the  com- 


,»':' 


304  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

pletion  of  the  elementary  course,  but  it  fails  to  give  to 

those  who  do  remain  the  ambition  to  look  ahead  for  fur- 

^  ,     ,      ther   education   in   the  hisrh   school. 

One-room  school  .  ° 

does  not  lead  to  And  even  if  the  boys  and  girls  who 
more  education  complete  the  district  school  desire  a 

high-school  education,  comparatively  few  can  attain  one 
unless  the  high  school  is  brought  to  them  as  a  part  of 
the  consolidated  school.  These  facts  and  these  illustra- 
tions are  given  to  indicate  the  type  of  information  that 
has  been  successfully  used  in  various  campaigns  for  con- 
solidation. 

There  is  no  end  to  the  different  arguments,  ways  and 
means  for  convincing  patrons  and  voters  that  the  con- 
C  '  n  u  t  be  ^0^^*^^^^^  school  promises  more  for 
suited  to  local  the  upbuilding  of  the  community  and 

conditions  ^]^g  improving  of  farm  life  than  any 

other  agency.  But  no  two  communities  are  just  alike  in 
local  conditions,  and  hence  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
any  complete  and  definite  program  that  will  apply  to  all 
localities.  In  some  districts  it  is  necessary  to  dwell 
chiefly  on  the  financial  side  of  the  two  types  of  schools. 
In  other  localities,  the  advantages  offered  by  the  new 
school  as  a  social  center  make  the  stronger  appeal.  And 
in  still  others,  the  superior  equipment,  stronger  teaching 
force  and  better  curriculum  are  the  convincing  argu- 
ments. The  leaders  of  the  campaign  must  be  sympathetic 
students  of  local  problems,  and  adjust  their  plans  accord- 
ingly. 

The  help  of  local  papers  should  be  enlisted  whenever 
possible.  Articles  bearing  on  the  desirability  of  better 
rural  schools,  accounts  of  improved  conditions  in  near-by 
schools,  and  suggestions  as  to  the  advantages  of  con- 
solidated  schools  are   of  great  help.     Especially  after 


HOW  TO   EFFECT   CONSOLIDATION    305 

consolidation  has  begun  can  the  press  be  influential  in 
stimulating  local  pride  and  emulation. 

"Booster"  meetings  should  be  held  when  the  right  stage 
of  the  campaign  is  reached,  and  every  influence  brought 
Value  of  public  ^°  ^^^^  *°  insure  the  attendance  of 
meetings  the  indifferent  and  the  opponents  of 

the  movement.  In  this  connection,  lantern  slides  of 
model  consolidated  schools  and  their  achievements  have 
a  powerful  influence.  Addresses  should  be  made,  facts 
presented,  and  a  free,  open  and  honest  discussion  of 
all  sides  of  the  question  encouraged.  All  personal  feel- 
ing, jealousy  and  bitterness  should  be  laid  aside,  and  the 
good  of  the  entire  community  patriotically  and  fearlessly 
considered.  Teachers,  as  well  as  superintendents  and 
patrons,  should  attend  these  meetings  and  take  an  active 
and  intelligent  part  therein. 

With  one  well-located  consolidated  school  adequately 

furnished  and   equipped,   provided  with  a   satisfactory 

transportation    system,    and   given    a 
Important  influ-  r      re  •     i.    ^       1  1  • 

ence  of  the  first         corps    of   efficient    teachers    workmg 

consolidated  under    a    good    superintendent,    the 

^^  °°  battle  is  well  won.     For  success  is  a 

powerful  stimulus.  Emulation  is  sure  to  follow.  One 
such  school  in  any  county,  plus  the  local  support  sure  to 
come  from  its  teachers  and  patrons,  will  do  more  to  con- 
vert the  remainder  of  the  county  to  consolidation  than 
all  other  factors  combined.  The  leaders  must  start  out 
with  this  in  mind.  No  mistake  must  be  made  with  the 
first  consolidated  school;  for  one  failure  may  delay  the 
movement  for  years  to  come.  The  site  must  be  chosen 
wisely,  the  building  be  suitable,  the  transportation  satis- 
factory, and  the  teachers  carefully  selected. 
Especially  should  the  superintendent  of  the  new  school 


3o6  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

be  thoroughly  capable  and  adapted  to  his  work.  For  he 
confronts  a  difficult  and  delicate  task  in  combining  a  num- 

T         ^  e  ber  of  different  small  schools,  each 

Importance  of  .  ,     .  ,.  . 

selecting  right  With    its    own   traditions   and    stand- 

superintendent  ards,  into  one  unified  system.  He  will 

have  to  grade  the  school,  classify  the  pupils  and  attend 
to  many  other  difficult  matters  of  organization.  On  him 
will  fall  much  of  the  responsibility  for  insuring  safe  and 
satisfactory  conditions  in  the  school  hacks.  It  will  be 
his  problem  to  convert  any  objectors  left  in  the  com- 
munity, and  in  all  ways  take  the  lead  in  proving  the  wis- 
dom of  changing  from  the  old  to  the  new. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION   AND   STUDY 

1.  Why  is  the  creation  of  a  desire  for  better  rurai 
schools  one  of  the  first  steps  necessary  in  order  to  ob- 
tain consolidation?  In  what  three  ways  can  this  desire 
be  created  in  the  average  rural  district?  What  step 
should  next  be  taken  ? 

2.  Would  a  full  knowledge  of  the  three  conditions 
given  on  page  two  hundred  and  ninety-four  enable  you 
to  decide  whether  or  not  your  own  community  should  be 
urged  to  ask  for  a  consolidated  school?  How  would  you 
proceed  to  satisfy  yourself  as  to  these  facts? 

3.  Why  is  it  better  for  a  district  that  is  not  financially 
able  to  build  and  equip  a  good  consolidated  school  to 
continue  school  in  the  old  district  buildings?  Do  you 
think  it  is  possible  for  almost  any  community  to  have 
a  good  consolidated  school  (where  consolidation  is  ad- 
visable) if  the  larger  unit  for  financing  rural  schools 
could  be  generally  adopted?  Why  is  the  larger  unit 
better  for  administrative  purposes  as  well  as  financial 
purposes  ? 


HOW   TO    EFFECT    CONSOLIDATION    307 

4.  If  conditions  were  reversed  and  it  were  necessary 
to  abandon  the  consolidated  schools  in  order  to  establish 
the  old  district  system,  do  you  think  your  patrons  would 
be  in  favor  of  the  change?  How  many  of  your  patrons 
really  know  the  advantages  of  the  consolidated  schools? 
How  many  of  them  have  ever  visited  a  good  consoli- 
dated school?  How  many  of  your  fellow  teachers  have 
ever  visited  this  kind  of  a  school?  Do  you  see  any 
reasonable  argument  in  the  statement  that  a  teacher  can 
teach  a  better  school  where  she  has  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
pupils  in  seven  or  eight  grades  than  where  she  has  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  in  two  grades? 

5.  Why  should  the  county  or  district  superintendent 
take  the  lead  in  a  movement  like  consolidation?  When, 
if  at  all,  should  these  officials  be  urged  to  remain  silent 
on  the  question?  In  some  counties  the  teachers  are 
given  most  credit  for  bringing  about  the  consolidated 
school.  Name  and  discuss  at  least  three  things  that  must 
have  been  accomplished  by  these  teachers  in  order  to 
merit  this  credit. 

6.  How  can  local  newspapers  best  help  to  advance 
this  movement?  How  would  you  gain  the  cooperation 
of  these  newspapers?  If  you  should  decide  to  take  the 
editors  of  the  papers  out  to  see  the  actual  work  being 
done  in  the  rural  schools,  just  where  would  you  take 
them  ?  Make  an  itinerary  for  a  trip  of  this  kind.  Would 
you  invite  any  patrons  or  school  officials  to  accompany 
you  on  this  trip  ?    Why  ? 


CHAPTER  XX' 

THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS 

The  success  of  consolidation  depends  more  largely  on 

efficient  and  satisfactory  transportation  than  on  any  other 

single  factor.    Rural  homes  are  so  far 
Success  of  consoli-  i.  j    xi.  r      -i 

dation  dependent       apart,    and    the    average    family    so 

on  public  trans-  small,  that  in  order  to  justify  con- 
solidation, pupils  must  be  gathered 
from  a  territory  too  large  to  admit  of  any  considerable 
number  walking.  This  means  that  a  large  majority  of 
the  children  must  be  carried  to  and  from  school  at  public 
expense.  For,  not  only  is  it  unfair  to  those  who  chance 
to  live  farthest  from  the  school  to  require  them  to  furnish 
their  own  conveyance,  but  no  system  of  private  convey- 
ances has  ever  proved  successful.  Nor  can  it  prove  suc- 
cessful. There  are  too  many  chances  that  accident,  sick- 
ness or  rush  of  work  will  interfere  with  taking  the  chil- 
dren to  school.  Attendance  is  bound  to  be  irregular,  and 
tardiness  and  absence  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception 
where  the  district  is  not  responsible  for  the  system  of 
transportation. 

There  are  many  whose  only  argument  against  the  con- 
solidated school  is  based  upon  objections  growing  out  of 
Pubr  d"  t  t  f  transportation,  and  in  many  instances 
transportation  not  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  room  for  just 
well  founded  complaints.      But    investigation    will 

show  that  the  causes  for  such  complaints  are  never  in- 
herent in  the  system  itself,  but  are  due  to  maladministra- 

308 


THE   TRANSPORTATION    OF   PUPILS    309 

tion.  Like  all  other  branches  of  public  service,  the  trans- 
portation of  school  children  falls  short  of  success  when 
left  in  the  hands  of  incompetent  and  untrustworthy  in- 
dividuals. Because  a  driver  now  and  then  keeps  the 
children  in  an  uncomfortable  and  poorly  ventilated 
wagon  until  ill  results  follow  does  not  prove  that  the 
school  wagon  is  a  menace  to  good  health.  To  argue  to 
such  a  conclusion  is  like  saying  that  the  loss  of  more  than 
two  hundred  children  in  the  Collinwood  school  disaster 
proved  that  all  school  buildings  are  death-traps.  Prac- 
tically all  just  complaints  against  transportation  arise 
from  incompetency  or  carelessness  which  could  easily 
have  been  guarded  against  by  school  officials.  Recently 
the  lives  of  a  score  of  pupils  were  jeopardized  by  a 
driver  who  was  addicted  to  drink,  and  whose  route 
crossed  the  railroad  track.  The  fault  here  lay  not  in 
the  system,  but  in  derelict  officials  who  would  employ 
such  a  man  as  driver,  and  allow  him  to  continue  after  his 
dereliction  was  known.  The  fact  that  one  state  last  year 
spent  half  a  million  dollars  for  the  transportation  of 
school  children  without  a  single  serious  accident  is  proof 
of  the  safety  of  the  system. 

In  any  discussion  of  transportation  four  all-important 
factors  are  to  be  considered.  These  are:  (i)  the  length 
Four  important  o^  the  route,  (2)  the  character  of  the 
factors  roads,  (3)  the  means  of  conveyance, 

and  (4)  the  character  and  efficiency  of  the  driver. 

The  matter  of  determining  the  routes  for  the  several 
wagons  of  a  new  consolidated  school  is  at  once  difficult 
Difficulty  of  map-  ^"^  delicate.  The  moment  one  begins 
ping  routes  to  map  out  these  routes  a  number  of 

perplexing  questions  are  confronted.  The  wagon  must 
be  well  filled,  no  child  is  to  be  missed,  bad  roads  must  be 


310  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

avoided,  and  no  one  route  should  exceed  six  miles  over 
good  roads,  or  five  miles  over  unfavorable  roads.  To 
sit  at  one's  desk  with  a  county  or  township  map  before 
him  and  settle  all  these  questions  may  seem  a  slight  task. 
But  to  go  in  person  over  the  proposed  routes  and  decide 
where  the  wagons  shall  make  their  first  and  last  stops, 
and  which  roads  shall  be  traveled,  are  matters  requiring 
much  wisdom,  tact  and  capacity  for  fairness. 

One  of  the  most  troublesome  questions  before  route 
makers  and  wagon  drivers  is  that  of  dealing  with  fam- 
ilies who  live  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  main 
road.  In  some  localities  there  are  so  many  homes  situ- 
ated in  the  center  of  farms  or  down  muddy  lanes  that, 
should  the  school  routes  be  so  planned  as  to  go  directl]^ 
to  all  these  homes,  each  driver  would  be  obliged  to  travel 
some  ten  or  fifteen  miles  in  order  to  fill  his  wagon.  And 
this  would  mean  that  the  children  he  received  first  would 
have  to  be  carried  an  unreasonable  distance  and  would 
be  in  the  wagon  too  long  a  time.  More  than  one  school 
official  has  received  complaint  against  transportation,  and 
upon  investigation  has  found  that  certain  persuasive  par- 
ents had  influenced  the  driver  to  alter  or  enlarge  his 
route  by  driving  down  lanes  or  by-roads  which  were  not, 
and  should  not  be,  a  part  of  the  route.  All  favoritism  of 
this  sort,  or  any  other  violation  of  the  driver's  in- 
structions must  be  rigidly  forbidden.  Where  careless- 
ness or  lack  of  courage  on  the  part  of  school  boards 
prevents  the  carrying  out  of  this  fundamental  condition, 
the  success  of  the  system  is  sure  to  be  endangered. 

The  introduction  of  transportation  not  infrequently 
bears  one  ill  result.    It  seldom  fails  to  make  all  walking 

Unreasonable  °"  *^^  P^^*  °^  school  children  unde- 

patrons  sirable     and     exceedingly     irksome. 


THE   TRANSPORTATION   OF   PUPILS    311 

Children  who  cheerfully  walked  two  miles  to  the  old  dis- 
trict school  consider  it  a  great  hardship  to  walk  a  half, 
a  quarter,  or  even  an  eighth  of  a  mile  to  reach  the  school 
wagon ;  and  it  often  happens  that  the  severest  critics  of 
consolidation  are  parents  whose  children  are  expected  to 
walk  from  their  homes  to  the  main  road,  a  distance  rarely 
exceeding  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

In  one  such  instance  a  ten-year-old  girl  was  asked  to 
meet  the  school  wagon  at  the  crossroads  just  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  her  home.  The  parents  objected,  but  the 
route  was  already  too  long  and  the  officials  ignored  the 
objection,  not  only  because  it  would  have  added  another 
half-mile  to  call  for  this  girl,  but  also  because  it  would 
necessitate  turning  the  heavily  loaded  wagon  around  in 
a  narrow  and  treacherous  spot.  The  parents  refused  to 
abide  by  the  decision  of  the  officials  and  appealed  the 
case  to  the  county  superintendent.  In  their  argument  be- 
fore the  superintendent  they  held  that  it  was  not  only 
unfair  to  expect  their  daughter  to  walk  down  this  lane, 
but  that  it  was  dangerous  owing  to  the  occasional  passing 
of  cattle  and  other  live  stock.  This  was  the  first  year 
of  the  new  consolidated  school,  and  the  complainants 
were  asked  how  their  daughter  had  been  getting  to  the 
old  district  school,  which  was  nearly  a  mile  away. 
They  admitted  that  she  had  walked  and  that  she  had  trav- 
ersed this  lane.  The  walking  had  not  proved  burdensome 
or  dangerous  prior  to  the  introduction  of  transportation. 

Great  importance  attaches  to  the  length  of  the  route. 
While  much  depends  on  the  character  of  the  roads  and 
The  length  of  ^^^    weight    of   the   vehicle,    it    may 

the  route  safely   be   said  that  no  school  wagon 

drawn  by  horses  should  be  expected  to  cover  a  route  ex- 


312  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

ceeding  six  miles  in  length — a  maximum  ride  of  twelve 
miles  a  day  for  those  children  who  live  at  the  extreme 
end  of  the  route.  The  legislature  of  Indiana,  however, 
has  repeatedly  refused  to  pass  a  bill  limiting  the  school- 
wagon  routes  to  six  miles,  and  this  is  the  state  which 
leads  in  the  number  of  school  wagons  used,  and  the  per 
cent,  of  pupils  transported.  During  the  191 1  session  of 
the  Indiana  legislature,  a  bill  making  six  miles  the  maxi- 
mum length  of  transportation  routes  received  the  sup- 
port of  scores  of  leading  school  men,  but  in  spite  of  this, 
the  bill  was  defeated ;  and,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  those 
who  most  strongly  opposed  the  bill  were  the  voters  whose 
children  were  being  transported.  This  last  and  most 
persistent  attempt  to  limit  by  law  the  length  of  school 
routes  in  this  state  brought  out  the  fact  that  there  are 
instances  where  children  are  being  carried  seven  miles  or 
farther,  to  the  complete  satisfaction  of  their  parents.  It 
furthermore  showed  that  the  length  of  routes  should  be 
determined  altogether  by  local  conditions. 

The  unexpected  growth  and  success  of  free  rural-mail 
service  in  the  United  States  has  demonstrated  that,  when 

Good  roads  a  ^^'^^y  ^^^  ^^^"y  wanted,  good  country 

factor  in  length  roads  can  be  had  in  nearly  every  sec- 
o£  route  ^j^j^  q£  ^jjg  country.     Statistics  show 

that  more  miles  of  good  all-the-year-around  roads  have 
been  built  during  the  last  fifteen  years  than  during  any 
fifty  years  previously.  In  numerous  localities,  good, 
roads  have  been  built  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing 
the  advantages  of  the  daily  mail.  And  it  is  reasonable 
to  say  that  if  a  state  or  community  is  willing  to  improve 
roads  in  order  to  secure  free  daily  mail,  the  same  state  or 
community  should  be  no  less  willing  to  improve  more 


THE   TRANSPORTATION    OF   PUPILS    313 

roads  in  order  to  get  free  transportation  for  school  chil- 
dren. 

The  importance  of  good  roads  to  the  success  of  con- 
soHdation  can  not  be  over-estimated.     It  is  well  known 

_  ,  ^.  that  in  many  of  our  states  there  are 

Transportation  .,  -  , 

largely  dependent  miles  upon  miles  of  country  roads 
on  good  roads  which  become  so  bad  in  winter  and 

early  spring  that  two  horses  can  do  no  more  than  draw 
an  empty  wagon  over  them.  To  effect  any  system  of 
transportation  over  these  roads  is  next  thing  to  impossi- 
ble. And  in  some  states,  hills,  swamps  and  running 
streams  make  road  building  a  very  costly  enterprise.  For 
this  reason  consolidation  can  not  be  given  a  fair  trial  in 
such  localities.  And,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  character 
of  the  roads  goes  far  toward  determining  the  length  of 
routes  and  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  carried  in  each 
wagon  in  districts  where  consolidation  is  firmly  estab- 
lished. 

But  it  is  not  too  much  to  believe  that  excellent  roads 
will  soon  permeate  every  prosperous  and  progressive 
Present  tendency  rural  community.  This  fact  should 
to  improve  roads  not  be  lost  sight  of  by  those  who  are 
considering  the  question  of  transportation  in  connection 
with  the  consolidation  of  rural  schools.  Farmers  are 
realizing  that  it  is  false  economy  either  to  allow  their 
roads  to  go  unimproved,  or  to  experiment  in  the  matter 
of  road  building.  And  no  one  is  more  cognizant  of  the 
fact  than  they,  that  too  much  money  has  been  extrava- 
gantly wasted  on  the  average  country  road. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  however,  most  of  the  states 
have  taken  long  strides  in  the  building  of  country  roads. 
Better  methods  of  Efficient  and  responsible  road  super- 
road  building  visors  and  county  engineers  are  rap- 


314  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

idly  displacing  the  indifferent  and  busy  farmers,  who 
have  too  often  regarded  the  building  of  roads  as  an  easy 
opportunity  to  pay  a  good  portion  of  their  taxes  by  work- 
ing without  plan  or  skill  upon  the  roads  when  farm  work 
is  slack.  Poor  and  inadequate  grading  is  giving  way  to  ex- 
cellent roadbeds,  and  these  beds  are  being  covered,  not 
with  sand  and  dirt  from  the  nearest  pit,  but  with  the  best 
grade  of  gravel,  crushed  stone  or  pavement.  Additional 
money  is  being  appropriated  from  state  treasuries,  and 
this  fund  is  being  increased  in  many  states  by  the  in- 
come derived  from  automobile  licenses.  One  state  has 
recently  reported  the  receipt  of  more  than  four  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars  for  the  current  year  from  this 
source  alone,  and  all  of  the  fund  is  to  be  used  on  the 
roads  of  that  state.  In  many  sections  of  the  country 
individual  communities  have  bonded  themselves  to  the 
extreme  limit  for  the  purpose  of  improving  their  roads 
in  addition  to  what  the  state  is  doing  for  them.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  within  the  early  future  but  few 
districts  should  need  to  deprive  themselves  of  transpor- 
tation on  account  of  poor  roads. 

Until  within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  wagons  or 
carriages  drawn  by  horses  have  been  almost  exclusively 
The  automobile  as  used  in  conveying  children  to  and 
transportation  from   the   consolidated    school.      But 

the  time  is  fast  approaching  when  motor-cars  will  sup- 
plant horses  in  this  sphere  just  as  they  have  done  in  the 
matter  of  street-cars.  These  new  and  swifter  vehicles 
have  already  been  tried  in  certain  localities.  Mr.  T.  H. 
Gass,  a  driver  for  the  Alamo  consolidated  sehool  near 
Crawfordsville,  Indiana,  used  a  motor-car  during  the 
school  year  of  1912-1913  with  complete  success.  His 
route  was  almost  five  miles  in  length  and  there  were 


The   bad   road 


Changing  bad  roads   into  good   is  one   of   the  best   means   of   promoting 

rural   education 


The   way   the   old   district   school   sends   its   pupils   home 


One   of   the  best  types   of    school   hacks 


THE   TRANSPORTATION   OF   PUPILS    315 

seventeen  children  to  be  carried.  While  the  roads  were 
in  good  condition  the  trip  was  made  in  thirty  minutes ; 
this  is  to  say  that  one-half  hour  was  the  maximum  time 
any  pupil  would  be  in  the  car.  With  still  further  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  motor-cars  and  better 
country  roads,  it  will  be  possible  to  transport  children 
in  less  than  half  the  time  now  required. 

Any  wagon  or  car  used  to  convey  school  children 
should  have  adequate  room  and  good  ventilation.     The 

^    ,.£    ,.  seats  should  be  adjusted  to  the  height 

Qualifications  •*  *= 

required  of  and   comfort   of   the   pupils   earned, 

any  conveyance  -phe  wagon  should  be  heated  by  some 
form  of  hidden  furnace  or  heater,  and  never  by  an  oil 
or  coal  stove.  There  is  on  the  market  now  a  very  satis- 
factory small  heater  made  expressly  for  school  wagons. 
It  is  neatly  fitted  under  the  bed  of  the  wagon,  and  the 
heat  is  distributed  by  means  of  pipes  and  registers.  It 
burns  wood,  coal  or  coke,  and  is  absolutely  fire-proof, 
being  so  constructed  that  if  a  wagon  were  to  upset  and 
turn  completely  over,  no  fire  could  get  out  of  the  fire 
box.  There  are  still  other  methods  for  heating  the 
wagons,  and  no  excuse  exists  for  permitting  children  to 
sufifer  with  cold  while  being  conveyed  to  school,  or  for 
endangering  their  lives  by  fire  in  case  of  accident. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  say  that  school  vv^agons  and 
cars  should  not  be  left  out-of-doors  over  night  or  when 
The  care  of  "ot    ^"   ^^se.      But,   because   they   are 

school  wagons  ordinarily  the  property  of  the  state, 

county  or  township,  they  are  often  exposed  and  misused 
in  various  ways.  Drivers  should  be  required  to  provide 
adequate  shelter  for  these  vehicles,  A  complaint  was 
made  during  a  recent  school  term  against  a  certain  wagon 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  nearly  always  damp  and  cold 


3i6  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

when  the  children  entered  it.  Upon  investigation  it  was 
learned  that  the  wagon  was  being  left  out-of-doors  day 
and  night,  no  matter  what  the  weather. 

All  vehicles  for  the  transportation  of  school  children 
should  be  purchased  and  owned  by  the  school  corpora- 
School  wagons  to  ^^^^^  '^  ^^^^^  ^hey  are  to  be  used. 
be  owned  by  the  This  is  true,  -first,  because  it  is  ob- 
corporation  ^j^^g  ^^^^   should  these  vehicles  be 

owned  by  individuals,  the  school  corporation  would  be 
limited  in  the  selection  of  the  drivers ;  and,  secondly,  be- 
cause public  ownership  of  the  vehicles  makes  for  superi- 
ority and  uniformity.  Dissatisfaction  is  sure  to  follow 
when  inferior  vehicles  are  used  day  after  day.  It  may 
be  somewhat  of  a  treat  for  the  children  to  change  from 
their  regular  wagon  to  a  sled  for  a  trip  or  two  when  a 
beautiful  snow  covers  the  roads,  and  in  northern  latitudes 
the  sled  may  have  to  be  called  into  requisition.  But  no 
cheap  or  inferior  method  of  transportation  can  be  de- 
pended on.  Certain  specifications  should  be  made  and 
followed  in  the  selection  of  any  school  vehicle.  In  order 
to  protect  the  roads  it  should  have  broad  wheels.  It 
should  be  comfortable  and  safe  for  the  smallest  and 
largest  child.  It  should  be  perfectly  strong,  yet  light 
enough  in  weight  to  enable  as  much  speed  as  possible. 
It  should  be  well  lighted,  well  ventilated,  and  easy  to 
'mount  and  dismount.  Several  wagon  factories  are  now 
making  a  specialty  of  standard  school  wagons. 
}  The  driver  of  any  vehicle  carrying  school  children 
should  be  chosen  with  as  much  care  as  the  teacher  or 
superintendent.  For  he  is  not  only  entrusted  with  the 
health  and  in  some  degree  with  the  morals  of  the  children 
he  conveys,  but  also  with  their  very  lives. 
i     In  every  case  this  driver  should  be  a  mature  person, 


THE   TRANSPORTATION    OF   PUPILS    317 

preferably  a  father  or  mother.  One  school  trustee  states 
that  the  best  driver  his  township  has  had  during  the 
Qualifications  nine  years   the   wagon   has   been   in 

of  the  driver  use,  is  a  widowed  mother  whose  own 

children  are  among  the  pupils  she  carries.  This  mother 
was  strong  both  physically  and  morally,  and  all  the  chil- 
dren not  only  obeyed  her,  but  loved  her.  And  this  trustee 
further  says  that  the  poorest  driver  he  has  had  was  a 
young  man  who  at  first  gave  every  promise  of  making 
an  excellent  guardian  for  the  children  on  his  route.  But 
he  was  unable  to  control  the  children  and  they  came  to 
dislike  him  to  such  an  extent  that  they  would  go  to  great 
lengths  to  annoy  and  harass  him.  Like  many  teachers, 
this  young  man  did  not  understand  childhood.  His  many 
threats  and  promises  augmented  trouble  instead  of  abat- 
ing it.  The  patrons  finally  became  so  disturbed  that  they 
demanded  his  resignation. 

Important,  then,  as  these  things  are,  the  ability  properly 
to  drive  a  team  and  to  look  after  the  physical  safety  of  the 
children  are  not  the  only  qualifications  drivers  must  pos- 
sess. If  such  were  the  case  it  would  be  far  less  difficult 
to  secure  first-class  drivers  than  it  is.  The  question  of 
moral  influence  plays  one  of  the  most  important  parts  in 
the  transporting  of  school  children.  The  man  who  con- 
veys pupils  to  and  from  school  should  be  as  clean  and 
wholesome  as  the  teacher  who  instructs  them  during 
school  hours.  Children  are  imitators  always,  and  will 
be  influenced  by  their  driver  as  quickly  and  naturally  as 
by  their  teacher.  It  is  universally  agreed  that  no  man 
who  uses  intoxicating  liquors  should  be  employed  as  a 
driver.  It  should  likewise  be  agreed  that  no  man  whose 
habits  or  standards  are  unworthy  of  imitation  should  be 


3i8  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

numbered  among  those  who  transport  pupils  to  and  from 
schools. 

In  those  communities  where  transportation  has  been  in 
operation  for  some  time  there  has  been  comparatively 
little  diflticulty  in  securing  desirable  drivers.  The  average 
daily  wage  paid  each  driver  for  himself  and  team  has 
been  upward  of  two  dollars,  which  amount  has  proved 
sufficient  to  lead  from  four  to  ten  men  to  apply  for 
every  position.  This  has  not  only  given  officials  great 
latitude  in  the  selection  of  men,  but  it  has  also  served  as 
a  powerful  stimulus  in  causing  the  men  chosen  to  do  their 
best.  There  are  a  few  officials  who  ask  for  competitive 
bids,  and  then  give  the  positions  to  the  men  offering  to  do 
the  work  for  the  least  money.  But  this  method  tends 
inevitably  to  lower  the  standard  of  service  rendered,  and 
can  not  be  too  severely  condemned. 

Every  occupation  has  its  own  temptations.  One  of  the 
temptations  which  comes  oftenest  and  most  easily  to  driv- 
The  driver  and  ^^^  ^^  school  wagons,  is  the  tempta- 

his  schedule  tion  to  alter  their  time  tables.    For 

example,  Richard  Roe,  driver  for  a  certain  school,  is 
given  a  time  table  which  stipulates  just  when  he  is  ex- 
pected to  arrive  at  each  home  where  there  are  pupils  to 
be  carried  to  school.  This  table  has  been  prepared  with 
great  care.  It  provides  ample  time  between  stops,  and 
is  designed  to  get  the  pupils  to  school  about  ten  minutes 
before  the  last  bell.  All  goes  well  for  several  weeks.  But 
presently  something  tempts  Richard  Roe  to  deviate  just 
a  little  from  schedule  time.  Perchance  it  is  a  piece  of 
work  on  the  farm  that  needs  his  attention.  He  asks  the 
children  along  the  route  to  be  ready  fifteen  minutes  early 
to-morrow.    The  children  are  nothing  loath  to  escape  the 


THE   TRANSPORTATION    OF    PUPILS    319 

chorts  and  arrive  at  school  in  time  for  a  period  of  play 
before  lesson  time.  Hearing  no  special  protest,  Richard 
Roe  conclude*  that  it  will  be  to  his  advantage  to  start 
on  his  route  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  early  once  a  week 
or  oftener.  It  is  not  long  until  complaint  is  heard,  and 
the  complaint  is  just.  When  a  time  table  has  been  pre- 
pared and  proved  workable  and  satisfactory  for  any 
particular  route,  it  should  be  considered  sufficient  cause 
for  the  discharge  of  the  driver  who  alters  it  for  selfish 
or  unwarranted  reasons. 

The    following    transportation    schedules    actually    in 

use  in  two  diflFerent  Indiana  consoli- 
Typical  schedules       ,  ^    ,         11  ,  -j       j 

made  by  drivers         dated     schools    may    be     considered 

typical : 


CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOL  NO.  1 

Situated  in  a  Region  Where  the  Roads  Are  Well  Improved,  Con- 
sisting Chiefly  of  Gravel  and  Crushed  Rock. 


Driver 

No.  1 

Driver 

No.  2 

Driver 

No.  3 

Driver 

No.  4 

Driver  No.  1 

Time  on 

Road 

Time  on 

Road 

Time  on 

Road 

Time  on 

Road 

Time  on  Road 

No. 

65  Minutes 

90  Minutes 

75  Minutes 

80  Minutes 

70  Minutes 

of 
Stop 

No. 

Time 

No. 

Time 

No. 

Time 

No. 

Time 

No. 

Time 

Cliildren 

of 

Children 

of 

Children 

of 

Children 

of 

Children 

of 

Kec'd. 

Stop 

Rec'd. 

Stop 

Rec'd. 

Stop 

Rec'd. 

Stop 

Rec'd. 

Stop 

1 

One 

7:30 

Three 

7:15 

Two 

7:30 

Two 

7:20 

One 

7:30 

2 

Three 

7:35 

Two 

7:25 

Two 

7:35 

One 

7:30 

One 

7:35 

3 

One 

7:40 

One 

7:30 

Three 

7:40 

One 

7:35 

Four 

7:45 

4 

One 

7:50 

Two 

7:35 

Two 

7:45 

Two 

7:40 

Two 

7:50 

5 

Two 

7:55 

One 

7:40 

Four 

7:55 

One 

7:45 

Two 

7:55 

6 

Three 

8:(K) 

Two 

7:55 

One 

8:00 

Three 

7:50 

Three 

8:0C 

7 

Two 

8:05 

One 

8:00 

Two 

8:10 

Four 

8:00 

One 

8:03 

8 

Two 

8:10 

Three 

8:05 

Four 

8:20 

Two 

8:05 

Four 

8:10 

9 

Four 

8:15 

Two 

8:10 

Two 

8:25 

Two 

8:10 

Two 

8:15 

'10 

Two 

8:20 

Two 

8:15 

One 

8:30 

One 

8:15 

Three 

8:20 

11 

One 

8:25 
8:35 

Four 
One 

8:25 
8:30 
8:45 

8:45 

One 
One 
One 
Two 

8:20 
8:25 
8:30 
8:33 
8:40 

One 

8:23 

12 

8:40 

13 

14 

15 

Total 

22 

24 

23 

24 

24 

320 


BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 


CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOL  NO.  2 

Situated  in  a  Region  Where  the  Roads  Are  Mostly  Unimproved, 
with  Dirt  Surface. 


Driver  No.  1 

Driver  No.  2 

Driver  No.  3 

Time  on  Road 

Time  on  Road 

Time  on  Road 

No. 

lOS  Minutes 

85  Minutes 

100  Minutes 

of 
Stop 

No. 

Time 

No. 

Time 

No. 

Time 

Children 

of 

Children 

of 

Children 

of 

Received 

Stop 

Received 

Stop 

Received 

Stop 

1 

Two 

7:00 

Six 

7:15 

Three 

7:00 

2 

Two 

7:10 

Two 

7:20 

Three 

7:15 

3 

Three 

7:20 

Four 

7:30 

Three 

7:25 

4 

Four 

7:30 

Three 

7:40 

Two 

7:30 

5 

Five 

7:40 

Three 

7:50 

One 

7:40 

6 

Two 

7:45 

Two 

8:00 

One 

7:45 

7 

Three 

7:55 

One 

8:10 

Four 

7:55 

8 

One 

8:05 

One 

8:20 

One 

8:00 

9 

Two 

8:20 
8:45 

8:40 

Two 
One 

8:05 

10 

8:10 

XI 

8:15 

12 

8:40 

Total 

24 

22 

21 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  columns  headed  "Time  of 
Stop"  the  last  items  indicate  the  time  of  arrival  at  the 
school  buildings. 

The  following  contract  and  bond  are  typical  of  those 
being  entered  into  between  school  corporations  and  wagon 
Driver's  contract  drivers.  It  can  not  be  too  strongly 
and  bond  urged  that  a  legal  contract  secured  by 

a  bond  of  reasonable  amount  be  required  in  every  case 
where  the  district  employs  drivers  for  the  transportation 
of  pupils: 

THIS  CONTRACT  This  day  entered  into  by  and  be- 
tween   ,  School 

Trustee  of Township County, 

,  of  the  first  part  and 

,  as  driver  of  a  school  wagon  herein 

known  as  party  of  the  second  part,  of 

County,  State  of ;  WITNESSETH: 


THE   TRANSPORTATION   OF   PUPILS    321 

That  the  party  of  the  first  part  has  this  day  employed 

the  party  of  the  second  part  at  the  sum  of  $ 

per  day,  to  drive  the  school  wagon  on  the  route  known 
herein  as  Number  ....  and  which  route  is  more  particu- 
larly described  as  follows,  to-wit : 

Beginning  at  the  home  of 

which  home  shall  be  known  herein  as  stop  Number  One, 
and  thence 


and  arriving  at  school  between  ....  and  ....  A.  M. 

And  said  second  party  hereby  agrees  to  drive  said 
route,  and  transport  all  the  children  of  school  age  who 
now  reside  in  the  homes  on  the  route  designated,  or 
those  children  who  may  move  into  homes  along  and  ad- 
jacent to  said  route  during  the  school  term. 

The  party  of  the  second  part  agrees  to  use  every  care 
and  precaution  in  the  way  of  protecting  the  children 
transported  as  aforesaid,  and  to  maintain  order  and  dis- 
cipline at  all  times,  and  to  treat  said  children  kindly  and 
impartially,  and  those  children  who  refuse  to  obey  shall 
be  reported  by  the  second  party  to  the  first  party,  who 
on  proper  assurance  of  their  continued  disobedience, 
shall  have  the  power,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty,  to  exclude 
them  from  further  advantage  or  admittance  to  said 
wagon. 

The  second  party  further  agrees  that  he  shall  at  all 
times  while  driving  said  route  come  to  a  full  stop  at 
each  point  where  children  are  taken  into  the  wagon  or 
let  out,  and  he  shall  also  come  to  a  full  stop  before  cross- 
ing any  steam  or  electric  railway,  and  ascertain  posi- 
tively whether  there  is  any  danger,  and  he  agrees  to  avoid 
all  danger  in  case  danger  is  recognized,  if  possible. 

And  the  second  party  at  no  time  during  the  school 
term  shall  allow  the  wagon  under  his  control  to  stand 
out  in  the  storm  or  cold,  and  shall  keep  the  same  clean, 
comfortable,  warm  and  properly  ventilated,  at  all  times 
while  in  use  for  the  children. 


322  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

And  second  party  agrees  to  abstain  absolutely  from 
the  use  of  tobacco  and  intoxicating  liquors  in  any  form, 
and  prevent  others  from  using  them  about  the  wagon 
while  children  are  therein ;  and  he  further  agrees  to  per- 
form personally  all  duties  as  laid  down  in  this  agreement, 
unless  permission  for  a  substitute  be  given  by  the  party 
of  the  first  part,  who  shall  designate  who  such  substi- 
tute shall  be. 

And  the  party  of  the  second  part  hereby  agrees  to 
make  all  reports  called  for  by  the  party  of  the  first  part, 
or  by  those  authorized  by  the  party  of  the  first  part  who 
call  for  them,  and  also  agrees  to  wash  and  clean  up  said 
wagon  at  the  end  of  the  school  term,  and  place  it  in  the 
school  barn  or  elsewhere  as  directed  by  the  trustee  of 
said  township  without  any  extra  compensation. 

The  second  party  further  agrees  that  no  other  use  shall 
be  made  of  the  school  wagon  above  mentioned  without 
permission  of  the  party  of  the  first  part,  and  the  same 
shall  be  well  cared  for  and  protected  at  all  times  by  the 
second  party  as  far  as  possible. 

Any  violation  on  the  part  of  the  second  party  of  any 
of  the  provisions  of  this  contract  shall  be  sufficient  cause 
for  declaring  it  forfeited  by  the  party  of  the  first  part, 
and  the  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  responsible  on 
his  bond  executed  in  connection  herewith  for  such  viola- 
tion. 

WITNESS  our  hands  and  seals  this   day  of 


Party  of  the  First  Part. 

•  •••• > 

Party  of  the  Second  Part. 

CONTRACTOR'S  BOND 

KNOW  ALL  MEN  BY  THESE  PRESENTS  That 

I, ,  as  principal  and 

as  surety  are 

hereby  firmly  bound  by  these  presents  to , 


THE   TRANSPORTATION   OF   PUPILS    323 

of Township, 

County ,  in  the  penal  sum  of  $ 

for  the  payment  of  which  we  jointly  and  severally  bind 
ourselves,  our  heirs,  executors  and  administrators. 

Sealed  this day  of ,  19 ... . 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  that  the  said 

above has  been  employed  as 

driver  of  the  school  wagon  on  School  Route  Number 

in Township, 

County,    

during  the  school  year  of  19. . .  and  19. . . 

Now  if  the  said shall 

faithfully  and  impartially  discharge  his  duties  as  provided 
in  the  contract  of  employment  in  connection  herewith, 
and  in  accordance  with  all  the  terms  and  conditions 
thereof,  then  this  bond  shall  be  null  and  void,  otherwise 
to  be  and  remain  in  full  force  and  effect  in  law. 


Approved  by  me  this day  of 

1913- 


FOR   teachers'   discussion    AND   STUDY 

1.  What  are  four  important  factors  in  connection 
with  the  transportation  of  school  children?  In  your 
judgment  which  is  the  most  important,  the  condition  of 
the  roads,  the  means  of  conveyance,  or  the  driver? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  complaints 
made  against  the  school  wagon?  Do  you  think  these 
complaints  should  be  charged  against  the  system  itself 
or  against  the  way  in  which  the  system  is  managed? 
Call  on  some  patron  of  a  school  wagon  and  ask  for  his 
objection  or  criticisms  against  his  local  school  wagons. 


324  BETTER  RURAL'   SCHOOLS 

3.  In  your  judgment  what  should  be  the  length  of  a 
route  covered  by  a  team-drawn  school  wagon  in  your 
community  ?  Try  to  learn  what  is  the  distance  being  cov- 
ered by  the  wagons  nearest  you.  Then  try  to  find  out 
if  any  of  the  drivers  leave  the  main  highways  for  the 
purpose  of  accommodating  certain  pupils.  Do  you  feel 
that  any  local  official  should  plan  a  route  which  would 
make  it  necessary  for  a  wagon  filled  with  children  to  be 
carried  off  the  main  road  to  pick  up  one  or  two  children  ? 

4.  Approximately  how  many  miles  of  roads  have  been 
built  or  improved  in  your  immediate  community  during 
the  last  five  years  ?  Are  your  roads  now  favorable  or  unfa- 
vorable to  the  successful  operation  of  the  school  wagon  ? 
How  many  weeks  or  months  during  each  year  could  they 
be  made  favorable  for  the  transportation  of  school  chil- 
dren by  the  expenditure  of  a  reasonable  amount  of  money 
on  them?  Who  has  charge  of  your  road  repair  work? 
Do  you  think  a  local  method  of  road-working  by  land 
owners  and  voters  is  a  satisfactory  one? 

5.  Are  any  motor-cars  used  for  the  transportation  of 
school  children  in  your  part  of  the  country?  Can  you 
see  any  reason  why  this  speedier  and  more  comfortable 
method  should  not  displace  the  present  wagon  method 
if  the  roads  are  made  suitable?  From  available  figures 
as  to  the  cost  of  the  wagon  method  in  your  community, 
try  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  motor-car  would  be 
the  cheaper,  taking  into  consideration  the  original  cost, 
repairs  and  the  number  of  children  transported.  How 
many  children  are  your  drivers  trying  to  carry  in  the 
wagon  ? 

6.  What  should  be  some  of  the  qualifications  of  a 
school-wagon  driver?  Should  the  school  corporation  or 
the  driver  furnish  the  vehicle?  Give  reasons  for  your 
answer.  If  a  team  is  used,  who  should  own  it?  Why 
do  so  many  drivers  persist  in  reaching  the  school  build- 
ing too  early?  Supposing  that  three-fourths  of  your 
pupils  were  being  transported  to  and  from  school,  what 


THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS    325 

time  in  the  morning  would  you  prefer  that  these  children 
should  arrive?  Do  you  think  too  many  rural  children 
try  to  reach  the  school  building  too  long  before  the  day's 
work  begins? 


PART  V 
RURAL  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

No  system  of  schools  can  run  successfully  without  ade- 
quate supervision.  It  matters  not  how  skilful  the  teach- 
ing, how  excellent  the  equipment,  or  how  perfect  the 
curriculum,  there  must  be  over  it  all  some  competent  au- 
thority to  unify  and  direct.  Left  without  necessary  su- 
pervision the  schools  are  like  a  complex  factory  system 
possessing  a  supply  of  material  and  a  full  quota  of  work- 
ers, but  lacking  overseers  and  foremen  to  direct  the  opera- 
tions. Such  a  system  of  manufacture  would  result  in 
great  waste,  and  would  end  in  financial  disaster. 

This  point  is  well  illustrated  in  a  recent  statement 
made  by  State  Superintendent  Hamlett  of  Kentucky: 
Waste  from  lack  "Kentucky  is  spending  annually  the 
of  supervision  enormous  sum  of  over  three  million 

dollars  for  rural  education,  practically  without  su- 
pervision. Here  are  nine  thousand  four  hundred 
and  eighty-one  rural  teachers  in  the  service  of  the  state ; 
one  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-one  of  whom  are 
beginners,  and  each  one  conducting  his  school  in  his  own 
way.  Fifty-two  cents  out  of  every  dollar  of  state  taxes 
go  to  public  education ;  the  school  fund  has  increased 
over  one  million  dollars  in  eight  years;  the  salaries  of 
rural  teachers  have  increased  until  they  average  forty- 
eight  dollars  and  sixty  cents  per  month  or  two  dollars  and 

329 


330 '  BETTER  RURAL!   SCHOOLS 

ten  cents  larger  than  the  average  of  salaries  of  city  teach- 
ers ;  and  yet,  in  spite  of  the  heavy  tax  on  the  people 
and  the  large  increase  in  teachers'  salaries,  the  rural 
schools  are  falling  farther  and  farther  behind  as  com- 
pared to  city  schools.  What  is  the  cause?  Clearly  one 
of  the  causes,  if  not  the  chief  one,  is  a  lack  of  competent 
direction  or  supervision  of  the  rural  schools."  This  con- 
dition of  affairs  is  not  peculiar  to  Kentucky,  however, 
but  is  typical  in  too  large  a  degree  of  the  rural  schools 
in  most  of  the  states. 

Rural  schools  especially  should  not  be  left  without 
skilful  supervision.    For  here  the  problems  are  the  most 

T>      1      t.     1  difficult  to  be  met  in  the  whole  school 

Rural  schools  es- 
pecially need  system,  the  teachers  are  the  youngest 
supervision  j^q^-j^  j^^  years  and  experience,  and  have 
had  the  least  preparation  and  training  for  their  work. 
The  rural  teachers,  therefore,  need  and  have  a  right  to 
the  help  that  comes  from  the  sympathetic  oversight  of  a 
competent  supervisor  whose  knowledge  and  experience 
enable  him  to  guide  and  direct  the  young  teacher  in 
meeting  his  many  perplexing  problems. 

Yet  the  rural  schools  have  never  been  given  supervision 
worthy  the  name.  In  the  earlier  days  of  our  history  the 
minister  often  had  added  to  his  clerical  duties  as  a  sort 
of  side-line  the  task  of  inspecting  the  school  and  examin- 
ing the  fitness  of  the  teacher.  But  with  the  divorcement 
of  the  church  and  public  education,  this  custom  lapsed. 
The  care  of  the  schools  was  then  not  infrequently  at- 
tached to  the  duties  of  some  public  officer  who  already  had 
duties  enough  to  occupy  all  his  time  and  interest.  Finally, 
the  office  of  county  superintendent  was  created,  and  forty- 
one  of  the  forty-eight  states  have  now  adopted  the  of- 
fice.    It  is  understood  in  every  state  that  the  special 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    331 

function  of  the  county  superintendent  is  to  oversee  the 

work  of  the  rural  schools,  special  superintendents  being 

employed  for  the  towns  and  cities. 

The  office  of  county  superintendent  may  therefore  be 

looked  on  as  typical  of  our  attempt  to  supervise  rural 

'/,       .  .  education.    This  office  has  played  an 

County  supenn-         .  .  ^    -^ 

tendent  and  su-         important  part  m  the  development  of 
pervision  q^j-  educational  system,  and  its  thou- 

sands of  incumbents  have  on  the  whole  been  efficient 
and  deeply  devoted  to  their  work.  But  the  office  imposes 
an  impossible  task  on  the  superintendent.  For,  while  the 
county  is  probably  the  most  convenient  unit  for  school 
organization  and  administration,  it  is  far  too  large  for 
successful  supervision  under  one  officer. 
I  Counties  vary  greatly  in  size  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  running  from  ten  or  fifteen  miles  square  in 
some  of  the  eastern  states,  to  more  than  one  hundred 
miles  in  certain  western  states.  The  average  county  in 
the  greater  part  of  the  country  is  not  far  from  twenty- 
five  miles  square,  having  therefore  an  area  of  some  six 
hundred  square  miles.  In  better  settled  regions  such 
counties  have  from  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  rural  schools,  and  not  infrequently 
as  many  as  two  hundred.  Together  with  town  and  vil- 
lage schools,  the  county  superintendent  often  has  from 
two  hundred  to  three  hundred  teachers  under  his  nomi- 
nal supervision,  or  as  many  as  would  supply  a  city  of 
forty  thousand  people. 

It  is,  of  course,  perfectly  evident  that  no  personal  su- 
pervision can  be  had  over  the  rural  schools  under  such 
Too  great  a  terri-  conditions  as  these.  If  the  county 
tory  to  cover  superintendent  should  visit  one  rural 

school    every    day    that    the    schools    are    in    session. 


332  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

he  would  barely  be  able  to  call  upon  each  sci^ool 
once  a  year.  This  is  equivalent  to  no  supervision  at  all, 
since  he  can  be  of  no  direct  help  to  the  teacher  in  meet- 
ing his  daily  problems.  And  even  if  v^^e  grant  that  a 
whole  day  need  not  be  spent  in  each  school  visited,  we 
yet  have  to  allow  for  many  factors  that  make  it  impos- 
sible for  the  county  superintendent  to  visit  schools  con- 
stantly while  they  are  in  session. 

For  the  county  superintendent  is  greatly  handicapped 
by  the  fact  that  he  is  expected  to  keep  up  the  routine  of 
Lack  of  clerical  ^^^  office,  and  often  without  adequate 
help;  many  duties  clerical  help.  He  usually  has  to  care 
for  a  large  correspondence,  and  is  required  to  keep  many 
records  and  make  extensive  reports.  He  must  keep  open 
office  and  meet  the  school  patrons  of  his  county  on  certain 
days  set  apart  for  this  purpose.  He  must  give  frequent 
examinations  for  certificates  and,  in  states  where  the 
state  does  not  take  charge  of  the  grading  of  manuscripts, 
must  spend  days  and  weeks  on  the  reading  of  papers. 
He  is  generally  commissioned  with  the  duty  of  passing 
on  the  plans  of  all  new  buildings  or  extensive  repairs  for 
schoolhouses,  and  not  infrequently  must  help  select  the 
text-books  for  the  use  of  the  schools  and  the  school  li- 
braries. The  county  superintendent  is  constituted  a  court 
for  the  hearing  of  appeals  on  school  cases.  He  must  have 
charge  of  the  enforcement  of  the  school  laws  in  his  coun- 
ty, must  attend  educational  conventions,  and  prepare  and 
carry  out  programs  for  teachers'  and  patrons'  meetings.  It 
is  plain  that  when  these  and  many  other  duties  not  enu- 
merated have  been  attended  to,  the  time  for  visiting  and 
supervising  schools  is  greatly  curtailed.  A  fair  example 
of  the  actual  amount  of  supervision  rendered  is  the  fact 
that  in  North  Carolina  the  average  time  annually  spent 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    333 

by  the  county  superintendent  in  each  rural  school  in 
1910-11  was  one  hour  and  fifty- four  minutes;  in  Ten- 
nessee, the  time  averaged  one  hour  and  fifty  minutes.  In 
Georgia  and  Florida  during  the  same  year,  the  county  su- 
perintendent averaged  one  and  two-tenths  visits  to  the 
school.^    The  record  in  other  states  is  not  far  different. 

But  the  effectiveness  of  supervision  by  the  county  su- 
perintendent is  still  further  handicapped  by  another  fac- 
Low  salary  a  ^^^ — ^^^  inadequate  pay,  with  frequent 

handicap  lack   of  provision   for  traveling  ex- 

penses incurred  in  visiting  schools.  In  order  to  travel 
over  a  county  where  trolley  lines  are  yet  wanting,  the 
county  superintendent  must  keep  some  conveyance  of 
his  own  or  else  hire.  This  means  additional  expense, 
and  a  heavy  drain  on  a  meager  salary.  It  is  financially 
more  profitable  for  the  county  superintendent  to  remain 
in  his  office  than  to  visit  his  schools ;  in  other  words,  a 
tax  is  put  on  supervision  by  failing  to  provide  for  the 
legitimate  expenses  incurred  while  traveling  among  the 
schools.  The  outcome  of  all  this  is  that  the  rural  schools 
are  often  not  visited  by  the  county  superintendent  for 
several  terms  at  a  time,  nor  the  teachers  met  except 
at  normal  institutes  or  other  teachers'  conventions. 

The  salary  of  county  superintendents  has  never  been 

commensurate  with  the  responsibilities  and  opportunities 

of  the  office.    The  county  superintend- 
Discrimination  ,     .  ,,  -j         1  1 

against  county  ^"^   ^^   usually  paid   a   lower    salary 

superintendent  than   the   merely   clerical   officers   of 

the    county,     such    as     the     county 

treasurer,    clerk    or    auditor.      Yet    these    require    but 

a  rudimentary  education,  and  no  special  judgment  or 

*  See  Monahan  in  Bulletin  Number  five  hundred  and  fifteen, 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 


334  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

skill,  while  the  county  superintendent  should  possess  an 
education  equal  to  that  of  any  educator  in  the  public 
school  system,  and  should  in  addition  have  the  highest 
type  of  administrative  ability  and  special  training  for  his 
work. 

While  the  supervision  of  the  rural  schools  of  a  county 
is  vastly  more  difficult  than  the  supervision  of  the  schools 
of  a  city  employing  an  equal  number  of  teachers,  yet  the 
pay  of  the  county  superintendent  is  rarely  more  than 
half  as  much,  and  frequently  less  than  a  third  as  much 
as  is  paid  the  city  superintendent.  This  factor  militates, 
of  course,  against  the  office  of  county  superintendent, 
since  the  tendency  of  the  stronger  and  better  prepared 
men  is  to  seek  the  city  superintendencies  rather  than  the 
county  superintendency.  In  some  of  the  states  the  effect 
of  this  discrimination  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  men  are  no 
longer  seeking  the  office  of  county  superintendent,  and 
the  places  are  being  filled  by  women.  In  Iowa,  for  ex- 
ample, sixty  out  of  ninety-nine  county  superintendents 
are  women,  and  the  proportion  is  increasing.  It  is  beyond 
question  that  many  of  the  strongest  and  most  efficient 
county  superintendents  in  the  country  are  women,  yet 
the  tendency  to  eliminate  men  from  the  office  probably 
tends  on  the  whole  to  weaken  it. 

The  method  of  selecting  the  county  superintendent  in 

twenty-eight  of  the  forty-one  states  having  this  mode  of 

^       ,  .  supervision  is  by  popular  election,  thus 

County  supenn-  ^  j  f  t-  » 

tendent  chosen  by  makmg  the  office  purely  political.  The 
political  methods  gyjjg  growing  out  of  this  system  are 
one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  in  the  way  of  proper  rural- 
school  supervision.  In  Maryland,  Louisiana,  North 
Carolina,  Georgia  and  Iowa  the  county  superintendents 
are  appointed  by  county  boards  of  education;  in  Tennes- 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    335 

see  by  the  court;  in  Indiana  and  Pennsylvania  by  school 
trustees  or  directors ;  in  Delaware  by  the  governor ;  and 
in  New  Jersey  by  the  state  commission  of  education. 

The  length  of  term  is  short,  only  two  years  in  twenty- 
two  states,  three  years  in  two  states  and  four  years  in 
Length  of  term  fourteen  states.  This,  coupled  with 
too  short  the  uncertainty   of    reelection  makes 

the  initiation  and  carrying  out  of  any  extensive 
plans  or  policies  practically  impossible.  It  also  con- 
stantly puts  the  county  superintendent  under  the  temp- 
tation to  shape  his  activities  so  as  to  placate  public  opin- 
ion. In  hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  of  counties  the  of- 
fice is  subject  to  the  unwritten  political  rule  of  "two  terms 
and  out."  Such  a  system  deprives  the  county  superintend- 
ent of  one  of  the  greatest  incentives  to  progressive  en- 
deavor, since,  no  matter  how  successful  his  work,  the  ro- 
tation of  the  political  wheel  is  sure  to  drop  him  out  to 
make  way  for  a  successor.  Not  only  do  such  irrational 
conditions  hamper  the  occupant  of  the  office  after  his 
election,  but  they  serve  to  deter  desirable  candidates  from 
seeking  it. 

;  While,  however,  the  county  superintendency  suffers 
under  so  many  handicaps,  it  has  great  possibilities,  and 

'    „       ,      , ,  ,  will  no  doubt  continue  to  be  the  cen- 

Office  should  be  ,      ,^       ,       ,  ,  .  - 

freed  from  limi-        tral  office  m  the  supervision  of  our 

tations  rural    schools.     The   great   problem, 

therefore,  is  to  free  the  office  from  its  limitations,  and 
strengthen  it  for  the  great  tasks  that  lie  before  it  in  the 
reconstruction  of  the  rural  schools.  The  salaries  should 
be  increased  in  all  the  states,  and  very  greatly  increased 
in  many  of  them.  Several  southern  states  pay  the  coun- 
ty superintendent  but  a  few  hundred  dollars  a  year,  while 
onQ  western  state  by  constitutional  enactment  limits  the 


336  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

salary  to  seventy-five  dollars  a  month,  or  less  than  is 
received  by  teachers  in  ordinary  school  positions  in  the 
state.  And  even  Indiana,  with  all  its  boasted  improve- 
ment in  rural  education,  pays  a  maximum  salary  of  about 
fourteen  hundred  dollars  to  the  county  superintendent, 
with  a  minimum  as  low  as  eight  hundred  dollars.  In 
this  state  the  allowance  for  clerical  work  is  only  about 
thirty  dollars  a  month,  thus  greatly  hampering  the  super- 
intendent with  duties  other  than  those  of  supervision.  It 
is  not  uncommon  for  superintendents  to  s'pend  annually 
as  much  as  two  hundred  dollars  of  their  own  salary  in 
traveling  expenses  and  office  service  that  they  may  the 
better  supervise  their  schools.  School  patrons  and  tax- 
payers need  to  be  brought  to  see  the  short-sighted  econ- 
omy that  will  allow  millions  of  dollars  of  school  funds 
to  be  expended  under  such  imperfect  conditions  of  super- 
vision as  these  facts  suggest. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  county  superintendent 
is  chosen  also  need  to  be  changed.  In  this  country  where 
politics  is  both  a  diversion  and  a  business  it  is  difficult  to 
remove  any  public  office  wholly  from  politics.  But  it  is 
a  crime  against  the  youth  in  our  schools  to  make  this  edu- 
cational office  a  political  plaything,  and  subject  to  the 
exigencies  of  political  fortunes.  That  we  are  willing  to 
do  so  betrays  a  failure  to  look  on  education  in  a  wholly 
serious  light.  There  is  no  more  reason  why  the  county 
superintendency  should  be  voted  on  at  a  political  election, 
or  the  nominations  be  made  in  party  primaries  or  caucuses 
than  the  city  superintendency.  The  fruits  of  this  method 
are  seen  in  the  fact  that  in  a  recent  election  in  an  im- 
portant state,  several  of  the  county  superintendents 
elected  had  never  been  engaged  in  school  work  at  all, 
being  small  business  men  or  workmen.     In  several  in* 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    337 

stances  also,  the  candidates  elected  were  unable  to  obtain 
a  teacher's  certificate  such  as  that  held  by  the  majority  of 
teachers  of  their  county. 

In  order  to  escape  such  a  travesty  on  supervision,  the 
plan  is  being  developed  in  about  a  dozen  states  at  present 
Appointment  by  o^  having  the  county  superintendent 
non-partisan  board  appointed  by  a  non-partisan  county 
board,  thus  removing  the  office  as  far  as  possible  from 
politics.  Under  this  system,  the  board  is  not  limited  to 
candidates  from  its  own  county,  but  may  seek  the  best 
material  wherever  it  is  to  be  found.  Such  a  board  will 
retain  a  successful  officer  for  an  indefinite  period,  and 
free  him  from  the  worry  and  uncertainty  of  political  elec- 
tions ;  and  they  also  find  it  possible  to  dismiss  an  incompe- 
tent official  without  waiting  for  the  expiration  of  the 
customary  two  terms.  The  advantages  of  this  system  of 
election  are  too  obvious  to  require  discussion. 

With  higher  salaries,  a  more  rational  method  of  selec- 
tion, and  more  secure  tenure  of  service,  the  qualifications 

Qualifications  for  °^  ^^^  ^^^^^^  superintendent  will  nat- 
the  office  to  be  urally  be  advanced.    Under  the  condi- 

advanced  tions  of  the  past  it  has  been  impossible 

to  insist  on  as  high  an  average  of  preparation  for  this 
office  as  for  the  city  superintendencies.  In  general,  the 
requirements  at  present  are  but  slightly  higher  than  for 
teaching  in  the  rural  schools,  and  in  many  states,  no 
higher.  In  but  twenty-seven  of  the  forty-one  states  em- 
ploying county  superintendents  is  any  educational  prep- 
aration required  for  eligibility  to  election.  Only  seven- 
teen require  experience  in  teaching.  Fourteen  states  re- 
quire no  educational  qualification  whatever,  though  of 
course  many  of  the  county  superintendents  in  these  states 
are,  notwithstanding,  well  qualified. 


338  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

The  county  superintendent  should  be  well  trained  scho- 
lastically  and  professionally,  and  should  have  had  ex- 
tensive    experience     in     educational 
Scholastic  training  ,       tt      u     u  u     ^.i.  i  i     j 

**    work.    He  should  be  the  real  leader 

of  his  teachers  and  the  school  patrons  in  all  that  pertains 
to  culture  and  education.  He  should  be  a  person  of  broad 
and  quick  sympathies  and  deep  insight,  with  a  great  ca- 
pacity for  loyal  friendships,  and  the  ability  to  offer  help- 
ful constructive  criticism. 

But  above  all,  the  county  superintendent  should  be  in 
sympathy  with  rural  life  and  a  leader  in  its  activities. 
Sympathy  with  Under  the  growing  ideals  for  rural 

country  life  schools,  it  is  almost  necessary  that  he 

shall  have  had  practical  experience  in  agriculture,  and  also 
be  thoroughly  grounded  in  its  scientific  foundations.  He 
needs  to  understand  manual  training,  and  the  principles 
of  domestic  science,  and  be  able  to  organize  and  correlate 
the  work  in  these  new  subjects  with  the  remainder  of  the 
curriculum.  He  must  deeply  believe  in  country  life,  and 
in  farming  as  a  desirable  career,  and  thus  be  able  to 
attract  young  people  to  the  farm  instead  of  leading  them 
away  from  it. 

In  short,  in  far  the  larger  part  of  the  country,  the 
county  superintendency  occupies  the  strategic  position  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  rural 
Sfead'^or'th?  schools.    The  influence  of  this  office  is 

county  super-  paramount,  and  as  it  succeeds  or  fails, 

mtendent  ^^  ^j^j  ^^^^  movement  for  country-life 

education  succeed  or  fail.  That  this  statement  is  true  is 
abundantly  shown  by  the  results  attained  in  certain 
counties,  and  the  educational  lethargy  prevailing  in  others 
possessing  similar  advantages  to  begin  with.  Not  a  few 
county  superintendents  have  become  national  in  their 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    339 

fame  for  the  work  done  in  the  rural  schools  of  an  ordi- 
nary agricultural  county.  Men  from  a  dozen  states  have 
come  to  visit  their  schools  and  discover  the  secret  of  their 
success.  And  this  secret,  when  found,  always  consists 
in  a  clear  ideal  of  the  function  of  the  rural  school  as  the 
most  valuable  possession  of  the  rural  community,  coupled 
with  the  vision,  devotion  and  capacity  necessary  to  real- 
ize this  ideal  in  practise.  Stating  the  same  truth  differ- 
ently, wherever  there  is  found  a  region  of  rural  schools 
far  surpassing  those  of  surrounding  regions,  there  it  is 
safe  to  inquire  who  are  the  county  superintendents  re- 
sponsible for  this  excellence  and  progress. 

But  even  with  the  conditions  surrounding  the  office  of 
the  county  superintendent  remedied,  there  still  remains 
County  superin-  *^^  necessity  of  supplying  a  sufficient 
tendent  must  be  number  of  deputies  or  assistants.  In- 
given  assistants  g^g^^j  ^f  receiving  a  visit  of  super- 
vision annually,  the  rural  schools  should  be  visited  every 
few  weeks,  or  even  every  few  days  if  necessary,  by  a 
skilful  supervisor  who  knows  how  to  assist  the  teacher 
in  solving  the  difficult  problems  that  are  sure  to  arise. 

This  movement  has  already  begun  in  many  places.  But 
West  Virginia  has  done  more  toward  perfecting  it  than 
any  other  state.  State  Superintendent  W.  P.  Shawkey 
and  his  rural  school  supervisor,  L.  J.  Hanifan,  have  been 
giving  special  attention  to  this  phase  of  rural  education 
and  their  splendid  work  along  this  line  is  attracting  the 
attention  of  educators  from  far  and  near.  In  many 
states  this  movement  is  known  as  "The  West  Virginia 
Plan  of  Rural  Supervision,"  and  it  seeks  to  give  county 
superintendents  a  sufficient  number  of  district  superin- 
tendents to  make  it  only  necessary  for  each  one  of  these 
district  supervisors  to  have  from  twenty  to  fifty  teachers 


340  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

under  his  jurisdiction.  In  this  way,  frequent  and  help- 
ful visits  can  be  made  to  each  teacher  throughout  the 
school  year.  The  states  of  Oregon,  Kentucky,  North 
Dakota,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania  and  many  of  the  southern 
states  are  now  organizing  a  similar  system.  County  rural 
supervisors  as  assistants  to  county  superintendents  be- 
gan work  in  more  than  one  hundred  counties  in  south- 
ern states  in  1912.  Another  form  of  assistance  given  the 
county  superintendent  is  that  of  special  supervisors  ap- 
pointed to  oversee  the  teaching  of  certain  lines  of  work 
in  all  the  schools  of  the  county,  or  as  many  townships  as 
may  be  assigned.  This  plan  is  so  far  limited  chiefly  to 
the  southern  states,  where  it  is  meeting  with  excellent 
success.  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Mississippi  and  Louisiana  all  employ  such  supervisors  in 
certain  counties,  and  the  movement  is  spreading. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  recent  attempts  to  add 
this  type  of  supervision  is  in  the  states  of  Louisiana  and 

-,    .     .  .  Georgia.     The  plan  was  initiated  by 

Beginnings  of  .  . 

industrial  private  philanthropy,  and  taken  over 

supervision  j^y  ^^e  school  authorities  when  it  had 

proved  its  success.  The  project  is  described  by  its 
founder  as  follows  :^ 

"In  the  summer  of  1909  consent  was  obtained  of  the 
superintendent  and  school  board  of  Putnam  county, 
Georgia,  to  accept  an  industrial  teacher  for  the  rural 
elementary  schools  of  the  county.  The  teacher  came  in 
September.  She  was  thoroughly  experienced  in  country 
teaching,  familiar  with  cooking,  sewing,  and  home-keep- 
ing; had  managed  successfully  a  small  but  first-class 
farm ;  was  modest,  tactful,  and  industrious ;  but  owned  no 
diploma.     She  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  the 

^Bulletin  Number  four  hundred  and  eighty-two,  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  page  seven. 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    341 

superintendent,  but  with  the  understanding  that  she 
should  manage  for  herself,  he  lending  such  assistance  as 
he  could.  The  plan  was  to  visit  the  schools  in  succession, 
spending  some  days  in  each  district  on  the  first  round. 
At  the  beginning  the  industrial  teacher  was  taken  around 
and  introduced  by  the  superintendent.  She  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  individual  teachers  and  the  pupils,  talked 
to  the  girls  about  sewing  and  cookipg ;  to  the  boys  about 
shopwork,  a  garden,  cleaning  up,  and  improvements  to 
house  and  grounds.  She  helped  with  the  teaching,  talked 
clubs,  library,  and  wherever  possible  arranged  for  some 
domestic  science.  She  was  invited  to  the  homes,  took 
a  hand  in  the  kitchen,  talked  crops  and  stock  to 
the  farmers,  and  chickens,  vegetables  and  flowers 
to  the  mother.  This  was  repeated  on  following 
visits.  Soon  canning  clubs  and  school  improvement 
clubs  were  organized ;  meetings  were  held ;  a  library  fund 
was  started;  'socials'  and  suppers  were  given  to  raise 
money  and  get  together;  a  new  schoolhouse  was  pro- 
jected; a  longer  school  term  considered;  and  more  homes 
were  visited.  There  was  usually  a  cordial  response;  if 
not  on  the  first  visit,  then  at  the  next.  It  was  not  long  be- 
fore this  teacher  was  very  much  in  demand,  freely  sent 
for,  and  entertained.  She  was  not  an  instructor,  but  a 
visitor,  adviser,  and  leader. 

"The    plan    proved    acceptable    and    has    needed    no 
changes.     The  superintendent  and  board  regarded  it  as 

an  important  addition  to  the  schools. 

Success  of  the  plan    --     1  •  j  •  i.    i.  j 

*^        Cookmg    and    sewmg    were    started 

in  many  places,  an  additional  tax  was  voted, 
the  teachers  were  helped.  Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant was  the  awakening  of  social  interest  and  the  inter- 


342  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

course  with  the  families  at  home.  For  the  second  year 
the  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  were  organized  to  make  a  joint 
exhibit  at  the  county  fair,  with  a  liberal  prize  list.  In 
one  consolidated  school  a  full  shop  and  kitchen  were  in- 
stalled, money  was  raised  by  subscription  for  additional 
room,  and  an  industrial  teacher  employed.  Social  gather- 
ings and  public  meetings  became  common,  the  school- 
house  became  the  social  center.  Doing  things  became 
fashionable.  For  the  third  year  the  board  unanimously 
took  over  the  teacher  and  assumed  the  salary,  which  in- 
cludes the  very  small  expenses. 

"Before  the  end  of  the  first  year  applications  had  been 
received  from  other  counties.  Three  additional  teachers. 
Growth  of  indus-  ^^  qualifications  about  similar  to  the 
trial  supervision  first,  were  added.  One  of  these  was 
placed  in  Putnam  county,  one  in  Oconee,  one  in  Douglas, 
and  the  first  teacher  went  to  Greene.  The  same  course 
was  followed  in  the  new  counties  with  the  same  results 
The  superintendents  were  exceedingly  helpful,  gracious, 
and  approving.  For  the  third  year,  Morgan,  Jones  and 
Hancock  counties  were  supplied,  a  number  of  applications 
being  still  on  the  waiting  list.  The  original  teacher  was 
made  supervisor,  to  visit  and  help  the  others.  There  have 
been  two  gatherings  of  all  the  teachers  and  some  of  the 
superintendents  to  become  acquainted  and  compare  notes. 
No  change  in  the  plan  has  been  suggested.  There  are  no 
rules;  no  statistical  reports  are  required,  but  there  is 
much  correspondence.  The  teachers  are  furnished  free 
to  the  counties  for  two  years,  after  which  the  county  as- 
sumes the  charge." 

The  new  projects  now  under  way  in  rural  education 
make  some  form  of  closer  supervision  almost  imperative. 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    343 

Agriculture  is  a  required  subject  in  the  rural  schools  of 

about  twenty  states,  and  will  soon  spread  to  most  of  the 

.-  L-    ^        1       others.     Manual  training  and  domes- 

New  subjects  make      ,  ,  *=' 

closer  supervision  tic  science  are  but  a  step  behind. 
necessary  These    subjects    are    new,    and    the 

teachers  are  less  well  prepared  in  them  than  in  the  older 
subjects.  Suitable  text-books  are  not  available  in  all  the 
new  lines,  and  the  course  of  study  to  be  followed  in  pre- 
senting them  is  not  fully  agreed  on.  Further,  the  new 
branches  must  be  adjusted  to  the  remainder  of  the  cur- 
riculum. These  are  all  difficult  and  delicate  problems, 
and  the  teacher  must  have  help  in  solving  them,  else 
much  of  their  value  will  be  lost  and  our  promising  at- 
tempt at  progress  will  fail. 

It  is  true  that  consolidation  of  the  rural  schools  will 
greatly  help  in  solving  the  problem  of  supervision.  For 
there  will  be  fewer  schools  to  visit,  and  the  principals  of 
the  consolidated  schools  will  be  able  to  render  assistance 
to  their  teachers.  Yet,  at  its  best,  the  task  of  supervising 
the  schools  of  an  entire  county  will  remain  gigantic,  and 
the  office  of  county  superintendent  will  require  the  high- 
est and  most  efficient  type  of  educational  ability  available. 

The  state  superintendent  is  also  an  important  factor  in 
the  supervision  of  rural  schools.  In  the  past,  the  greater 
part  of  his  influence  has  been  felt 
Sndenf  an"FmpSr-  through  the  medium  of  the  county 
tant  factor  in  superintendents,  whom  he  has  coun- 

supervision  seled,     and     whose     work     he     has 

in  some  degree  directed.  Through  his  influence 
courses  of  study  have  been  adopted,  the  require- 
ments for  teachers  have  been  shaped  and  unified,  and 
legislation  favorable  to  rural  education  has  been  pro- 


344  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

moted.  During  recent  years,  however,  a  large  number  of 
the  states  have  provided  for  deputies  under  the  state 
superintendent  whose  special  duty  has  been  the  general 
supervision  of  the  rural  education  of  the  state. 

These  rural  supervisors  are  doing  a  remarkable  work, 
especially  in  certain  of  the  southern  states.  During  the 
Special  state  ^^^^  y^^'*  ^^^  states  of  South  Carolina 

supervisors  and  Mississippi  have  sent  their  rural 

supervisors,  W.  K.  Tate  and  W.  H.  Smith,  respectively, 
to  Denmark  and  other  foreign  countries  for  the  purpose 
of  preparing  them  to  do  still  more  for  the  rural  schools 
in  their  states.  In  some  states,  a  supervisor  of  industrial 
training  has  also  been  added.  These  officers  have  been  an 
important  factor  in  stimulating  the  interest  in  rural  edu- 
cation and  in  shaping  and  guiding  the  direction  of  rural 
school  reforms. 

Taken  altogether,  therefore,  the  signs  are  very  hopeful 

in  the  field  of  rural-school  supervision.     We  have  the 

__  -  ,  ^,  ,  fundamental  as^encies  at  hand  to  ren- 
Hopeful  outlook         ,„.._,,  .„ 

for  rural  su-  der  effective  service.    1  he  county  will 

pervision  remain  the  unit  of  supervision  for  the 

greater  part  of  the  country.  The  office  of  county  super- 
intendent will  increase  in  importance  and  in  responsibility. 
The  necessary  assistants  will  be  supplied  to  provide  per- 
sonal supervision  for  every  rural  teacher,  and  to  unify 
the  work  of  the  schools  of  the  county.  The  state  super- 
intendent, through  his  relations  to  the  county  superin- 
tendents and  through  his  special  rural-school  supervisors, 
will  be  able  to  stimulate  and  unify  the  work  of  the  rural 
schools  of  the  whole  state.  The  opportunities  and  duties 
of  the  supervisors  of  the  rural  schools  are  perfectly 
definite  and  clear.  There  are  men  and  women  of  the 
required  training  and  ability  to  fill  acceptably  those  su- 


THE  SUPERVISION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS    345 

pervisory  positions.  It  only  remains  for  us  to  surround 
the  supervisory  offices  by  such  conditions,  and  support 
them  with  such  social  and  financial  rewards,  that  the 
highest  type  of  ability  and  devotion  can  be  claimed  for 
these  most  important  of  all  educational  positions. 


FOR   TEACHERS     DISCUSSION   AND   STUDY 

1.  How  often  does  the  county  superintendent  visit 
your  schools?  How  much  real  help  are  such  infrequent 
visits?  Do  you  often  meet  problems  on  which  you  would 
like  advice  from  the  superintendent? 

2.  Compare  the  work  of  a  county  superintendent  and 
a  city  superintendent.  Compare  the  salaries.  Do  you 
think  there  are  any  more  important  responsibilities  re- 
quired of  a  city  superintendent  than  of  a  county  superin- 
tendent? How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  in 
salaries  ? 

3.  Compare  the  educational  requirements  of  the  two 
positions.  Why  should  one  be  in  politics  any  more  than 
the  other?  Why  should  one  be  required  to  work  twelve 
months  out  of  the  year  for  less  salary  than  the  one  who 
works  but  nine  or  ten? 

4.  Are  the  rural  teachers  less  deserving  of  efficient 
supervision  than  are  town  or  city  teachers,  bearing  in 
mind  that  the  former  usually  have  two  or  three  times 
the  number  of  grades  to  teach? 

5.  Compare  the  number  of  beginning  teachers  in  your 
rural  districts  or  township  with  the  number  of  beginning 
teachers  in  your  towns  or  cities.  Why  do  the  rural 
teachers  prefer  to  work  in  graded  schools?  Do  not 
the  town  and  city  teachers  put  in  as  many  hours  per 
day?  Does  not  the  average  teacher  prefer  to  work  where 
she  can  have  the  advantage  of  closer  supervision?  Is 
it  not  a  fact  that  rural  teachers  would  rather  have  their 


346  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

superintendent  visit  them  several  times  each  month  than 
once  or  twice  each  year? 

6.  Why  do  rural  teachers  change  schools  so  much 
more  frequently  than  do  urban  teachers?  Does  not  the 
lack  of  adequate  and  efficient  supervision  account  for 
this  to  a  great  extent? 

7.  Do  not  one  or  two  insignificant  and  groundless 
complaints  from  a  patron  often  cost  a  good  rural  teacher 
her  position?  Would  these  same  complaints  have  any 
weight  with  a  city  or  county  superintendent  who  has 
visited  this  teacher  every  week  or  month  throughout 
the  school  year? 


CHAPTER  XXII 

FINANCIAL  SUPPORT 

The  surest  test  of  the  loyalty  and  appreciation  attach- 
ing to  any  institution  is  the  willingness  to  pay  for  its 

,„.„.  ^  advantages.     Granting  the  necessary 

Willingness  to  pay  ... 

a  test  of  ap-  financial  ability,  therefore,  the  meas- 

preciation  ^j.^  ^f  support  accorded  to  the  rural 

schools  indicates  the  esteem  in  which  they  are  held  by 
their  patrons,  and  the  value  attached  to  the  education 
these  schools  represent.  The  rural  schools  originated  in 
the  pioneer  days  when  poverty  and  privation  were  the 
common  experience  of  those  who  dared  to  claim  the  new 
regions.  The  school  shared  in  the  general  poverty,  as 
was  right  it  should,  and  was  perforce  satisfied  with  its 
meager  equipment,  which  was  on  a  par  with  other  stand- 
ards of  the  day. 

But  the  pioneer  days  are  gone,  and  the  farmers  have 
become  the  most  prosperous  and  well-to-do  of  our  indus- 
trial groups.  They  constitute  a  class  of  high  intelligence, 
and  control  one  of  the  most  fundamental  and  important 
of  all  occupations.  Their  wealth  has  increased  until  the 
amount  invested  in  agriculture  is  more  than  twice  that 
devoted  to  manufactures.  During  the  present  generation 
the  value  of  farm  holdings  has  more  than  doubled,  and 
the  tendency  is  still  upward.  The  present  reign  of  pros- 
perity has  favored  the  farmer  more  than  any  other  class 
of  workers. 

347 


348  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

Has  the  rural  school  shared  in  the  general  ad- 
vance in  prosperity  that  has  reached  the  farms  ?  Taking 
the  country  as  a  whole  the  expenditures  for  public  educa- 
tion have  more  than  doubled  during  the  last  decade.  This 
is  a  marvelous  advance,  probably  never  before  equaled  in 
the  history  of  any  country.  Has  the  rural  school  received 
its  share  of  added  support,  or  is  it  still  on  the  basis  of  the 
pioneer  days  when  rigid  economy  was  the  price  of  bare 
existence  ? 

While  the  rural  schools  have  reaped  some  benefit  from 
the  great  advance  in  wealth  and  prosperity,  they  have 
The  rural  school  "^^  received  their  full  share.  In 
has  not  shared  buildings,  equipment  and  salary  they 

prosperity  are  still  too  near  the  old  level.    Towns 

and  cities  have  erected  commodious  and  attractive  build- 
ings, and  supplied  them  with  the  necessary  material  and 
apparatus  for  efficient  work.  But,  excepting  for  the  oc- 
casional country  school,  the  rural  schools  are  yet  stranded 
dangerously  near  the  poverty  line.  Log  schoolhouses  are 
common  in  the  South,  and  are  still  to  be  found  in  use  in 
such  northern  states  as  Indiana  and  Illinois.  At  least 
five  thousand  primitive  log  buildings  are  in  use  for  rural- 
school  purposes.  Colorado  employs  more  than  three  hun- 
dred sod,  adobe  or  log  school  buildings,  with  other  equip- 
ment to  match.  An  actual  survey  of  all  the  rural  schools 
for  whites  in  twenty-eight  counties  of  eight  southern 
states  recently  showed  that  fully  half  of  the  fifteen  hun- 
dred and  seventy-nine  schools  were  being  held  in  old, 
weather-beaten  buildings,  a  large  proportion  of  which  had 
never  been  painted,  and  a  considerable  number  of  which 
had  never  been  ceiled — mere  shells  of  cabins.  Thirty  per 
cent,  of  these  schools  used  home-made  desks  similar  to 


FINANCIAL   SUPPORT  349 

1.  WASHINGTON      (S)®<|)®<|)®®<|)(|><I)<I)<i)®®®®®®(I)®(i)®<i)(|)<I)®(i>(|X|XB<a®J5^ 
2  CALirORNlA      ®®®®®®©®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  27 

3.  NEW  YORK         ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  25 

4.  MASSACHUSETTS®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  25 

5  NEVADA  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  2S 

6  MONTANA  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  24 
7.  COLORADO  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®©®®®®®®®®  24 
a  ILLINOIS.  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  25 

9  OHI O  ® ®® ®®®®®®©®®® ®® ®®®®®©®  2 2 

10  CONNECTICUT  ®®®®®®®©®®®®®®®®®®®®®®22 

11  NEW  JERSEY     (S>®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®22 

12  N.  DAKOTA        ©®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  2 1 

13.  ARIZONA  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®(|)®®®®®®  21 

14  VERMONT  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  21 

15  OREGON  ®®®®®®®©®®®®®®®©®®®®®  21 
16 RHODE  ISLAND®®©®©®®®®®®®®®©®®®®®®  21 
17  WYOMING  ®®®®®©©®®®®®©®®®©®®®  20 

16  UTAH  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®©®®®  20 

19  MINNESOTA         ®®®®®®®©®®®©®®®®®®®®  20 

20  IDAHO  ®®®®©®®®®©®©®®©®®®®®20 

21  N.  HAMPSHIRE  ®®®®®®©®®®®®®®®®®®®®  20 
225  DAKOTA  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®©®  20 
23  IOWA  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®©®®®  20 
24]NDIANA  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  I9^ 

25.  MICHIGAN        '  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  18  ' 
26  PENNSYLVANIA®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  IS 
17  NEBRASKA        ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  IS 
28  MAINE  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  17 

29KAN5A5  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®  15 

30WkSCON5lN       ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®®.I5 
51  MISSOURI  ®®®®®®®®®®®®®®I4 

32  OKLAHOMA      ®®®®®®®®®®®®®l^ 
33W  VIRGINIA     ®®®®®®®®®®®ll 

34  DELAWARE        ®®®®®®®®®®®ll- 

35  MARYLAND        ®®®®®®®®®®  10 

36  FLORIDA  ,  ®®®®®®®®  8 

57  N.  MEXICO  ®®®®®®®®  8 ' 

3a  LOUISIANA  ®®®®®®®7 

39  TEXAS  ®®®®®®®7 

40  KENTUCKV  ®®®®®®®7 

41  VIRGINIA  ®®®®®®6 

42  ARKANSAS  ®®®®®®  6 

43  TENNESSEE  ®®®®®®  6 

44  GEORGIA  ®®®®4 

45  MISSISSIPPI  ®®®®4 

46  ALABAMA  ®®®®4 

47  N  CAROUNA  ®®®®4 
4a  5.  CAROU  NA  ®  ®®  3 

Annual  expenditure  per  child  of  school  age  for  school  purposes  in  each 
state  in  1910.  — Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


350  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

those  found  in  the  colonial  schools  buildings  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  ago,  and  twenty-seven  schools  re- 
ported no  desks  of  any  kind,  but  only  rude  benches  for 
seats.  A  similar  survey  in  from  one  to  three  counties 
in  each  of  seven  northern  states  revealed  conditions  no 
whit  better,  if  the  difference  in  economic  conditions  is 
considered.  The  latter  report  concludes  that  in  these 
northern  states  the  buildings  are  for  the  most  part  old 
and  out  of  date — one  room,  low  ceilings,  dingy  and  dark. 
The  grounds  are  bleak  and  bare  of  beauty  or  attractive- 
ness and,  like  the  buildings,  poorly  kept.^ 

Even  town  and  village  schoolhouses,  to  say  nothing  of 
city  buildings,  are  now  warmed  by  steam  or  circulating 
The  poverty  of  currents  of  heated  air,  are  thoroughly 

the  rural  school  ventilated  and  have  provisions  for 
sanitary  drinking  fountains  and  other  hygienic  equipment. 
But  more  than  half  of  the  country  schools  of  all  the  states 
are  yet  heated  by  an  unprotected  stove  set  in  the  middle 
of  the  room,  radiating  its  heat  directly  on  the  pupils.  One 
out  of  eight  of  all  rural  schools  is  entirely  innocent  of 
shades  for  the  windows,  the  sun  finding  unhindered  ac- 
cess to  the  room.  Less  than  one  school  out  of  twelve  has 
any  janitor  service  provided  except  that  given  by  the 
overworked  teacher;  hence  cleaning  days  are  few  and 
far  between.  Three-fourths  of  the  rural  schools  of  the 
entire  country  are  without  water  supply  on  the  premises, 
while  about  one  out  of  five  has  no  water  within  a  quarter 
of  a  mile.  The  common  drinking  cup  and  the  old  wooden 
or  rusty  tin  water  pail  are  still  in  common  use.  Half  the 
outhouses  are  an  insult  to  decency  and  a  menace  to 
morals. 

*  See  Bulletin  Number  five  hundred  and  fifteen,  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  page  thirty-one. 


FINANCIAL    SUPPORT 


351 


I.NCVADA  •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••  59 

2  ARIZONA        ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••  30 

5  WASHINGTON  ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••  50 

4  N.  DAKOTA      •••••••••••••••••••••••••••  Z7 

5  WYOMING       •••••••••••••0**«*«««««««*«  27 

6.  COLORADO    •••••••••••••••••••••••••••  27 

7.  CALIFORNIA   ••••••••••••••••••••••••••  26 

e.  IDAHO  •••••••••••  •••••«••••••••  25 

Q.  5  DAKOTA  •••••••••••••••••0*«e««««  25 

10.  MONTANA    •••••••••••••••••••0««*««  25 

11 .  OREGON        ••••••••••••••••••••••••  24 

12.  MINNESOTA  •••••••••••••••••••••••  25 


13  ILLINOIS       ••••••••••••••••a*e*««  22 

14  NCW  YORK     ••••••••••••••••••••••22. 

15  INDIANA         •••••••••••••••••••••  21 

le.  Nrw  JCRSCY ••••••••••••••••••••  20 

17  UTAH     ••••••••••••••••••••20 

18  OHIO      ••••••••••••••••••••  ZO 

19  MASSACHUSnTS^^^^^*^^^^^^^^^^^^^  19 

20  N  HAMP6HIRE^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I9 
.2!.  NEBRASKA   •••••••••••••••••••19 

!22  IOWA  —•—•••••—••— 18 

25  PENN?n.VANlA*««^«e^^^^««^^«^^«l8 
'24  VERMONT      ••••••••••••••••••18 


25  RHODE  ISUND««^^^^^^^^^^»*««««I& 

26  N.  MEXICO         •••••••••••••••••  17 

2/ MISSOURI         •••••••••••••••••17 

28  CONNECTICUT  •••••••••••••••••17 

^KANSAS         •••••••••••••••••17 

30  MICHIGAN        •••••••••••••••••!? 

51  WISCONSIN      ••••••••••••••••16 

:3Z  MAINE  ••••••••••••••••16 

35  OKLAHOMA    •••••••••••••••15 

^4  W.VIRGINIA     •••••••••••••••15 

'35  LOUISIANA.    •••••••••••••••15 

'56rL0RIDA         ••••••••••••••  14 


•37  DELAWARE 
3a  MARYLAND 
39  TEXAS 
UO  KENTUCKY 
KJ  I.  ARKANSAS 
tS2  VIRGINIA 
143  ALABAMA 
W4.  MISSISSIPPI 
m)5  TENNESSEE 
I16  GEORGIA 
|47.N  CAROLINA 
IfjaSCAROUNA 


•••••••••••••13 

•••••••••••••15 

••••••••••••12 

••••••••••••  1 2 

•••••••••••II 

•••••••••••II 

———•09 
••••••••8 

••••••••6 

••••••• 7 

•••••••7 

•——7 


Cost  of  one  day's  schooling  per  child  in  each  state  in  1910.     Each  black 
dot  represents  one  cent.  • — Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


352  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

On  the  whole,  we  are  obliged  to  conclude  that  the  great 
majority  of  rural  schools  are  housed  in  uncomfortable 
Unsuitable  ^^^  unsuitable  buildings,   unadapted 

equipment  for    school    purposes     from     almost 

every  standpoint,  without  proper  furniture,  and  lacking 
in  facilities  for  heating,  ventilating  and  lighting ;  further, 
that  the  rural  schools  are  without  adequate  provisions  for 
guarding  the  health  and  morals  of  the  children,  and  pos- 
sess very  little  equipment  for  teaching.  And  this  is  the 
treatment  we  accord  some  six  million  American  boys  and 
girls  when  we  send  them  to  school!  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  many  of  them  are  not  enthusiastic  over  their  oppor- 
tunities, or  the  type  of  life  to  which  such  conditions  are 
related ! 

Rural  schools  are  supported  little  or  no  better  in  the 

matter  of  current  expenditure  than  in  equipment.    The 

salaries  of  rural  teachers  are  too  low 
Salaries  too  low         .  ^     i.  i.       ^     j  j  ut.  ■ 

m  most  states  to  demand  or  obtam 

efficiency.  Coffman  found  in  a  recent  study^  of  more 
than  five  thousand  rural  teachers  scattered  over  various 
states,  that  the  average  man  teaching  in  the  rural  schools 
receives  a  salary  of  barely  three  hundred  and  ninety  dol- 
lars a  year,  and  the  average  woman  of  three  hundred  and 
sixty-six  dollars  a  year.  Men  teaching  in  towns  and 
cities  receive  about  double  the  salary  of  those  teaching  in 
the  country,  and  women  slightly  under  twice  as  much. 
While  it  is  difficult  to  get  accurate  data  on  general  wages, 
the  best  figures  available  from  government  reports  indi- 
cate that  the  average  annual  wages  received  by  the  work- 
ers in  five  great  occupations  are  as  follows:  Carpenters, 
eight  hundred  and  two  dollars ;  coal  miners,  six  hundred 
dollars;  factory  workers,  five  hundred  and  fifty  dollars; 

*  The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Force, 


FINANCIAL   SUPPORT 


I.CAUFDRNIA    916 


^A  MASSACHwacTTS     76"* 
|5.  NEW  JERSEY    7,51 


6.WASHINVTON    e02 


: MONTANA    645 
}. COLORADO    642 


1.  RHODE    ISLAND     «07 
r  10.  UTAH      5»2 
rll.  ILLINOIS      580 
,12  CONNECTICUT    561 
(13.  PtNNSYLVANlA    55* 
(14   IDAHO   949 
(ISOHrO    B2A 
it.  INDIANA    S25 
il7.  OREGON     516 
>I8.  MARYLAND     519 


353 


^la  MINNESOTA    486 

f20.  MICHIGAN     480 

21   NEVADA    470 

.WISCONSIN  466 
.MISSOURI      44S 
^24.  WYOMING    A'59 
.  KANSAS    4-29 

26;L0UI3IANA   415 

;27.  DELAWARE  414. 
J  26.  NEBRASKA    MX 
-i'9  OKLAHOMA    40a 
^50.  TEXAS     334 
f3l.  NEW  MEXICO  348 
fJZ.  NORTH   DAKOTA  350 
'"    KENTUCKY  337 

SOUTH     DAKOTA  SZ9 
r.NEW  HAMPSHIRE    SZS 
WEsr  VIR6INIA   AZS 

ALABAMA       3t* 
L     I OWA      502 
39    TtNNESStt      Zas 
.^RKAN.SA5    .204- 
■4f    FLORIDA      STtf 

kZ  VIRGINIA  26S 
A3.  VERMONT      J6S 


S.  Cv^ROLINA    2/2 
47  MISSISSIPPI    2\0 
AS. N. CAROUNA  200 


Average    annual    salary    of    all    public    school-teachers    in    each    state    in 
1910.  — Courtesy  of  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


354  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

common  laborers,  five  hundred  and  thirteen  dollars;  all 
public  school  teachers,  four  hundred  and  eighty-five  dol- 
lars. 

It  is  evident  from  these  comparisons  that  teaching  as 
an  occupation  is  greatly  underpaid ;  but  the  rural  teacher 
Humiliating  suffers  most  of  all.     Throughout  the 

comparisons  southern   states  there  are  thousands 

of  rural  teachers  who  earn  less  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  a  year.  And  even  in  New  Eng- 
land, hundreds  of  rural  teachers  receive  less  than  six 
dollars  a  week.  One  central  Atlantic  county  averages 
only  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  dollars  a  year  for  all 
teachers  in  the  county.  One  southern  state  lets  its  con- 
victs from  the  penitentiary  to  contractors  at  the  rate  of 
four  hundred  dollars  a  year,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
pay  of  its  teachers  is  only  about  three  hundred  dollars  a 
year.  Another  state  succeeds  in  maintaining  all  its  coun- 
try schools  at  an  average  of  two  hundred  and  eighty-six 
dollars  a  year  for  all  expenses. 

Of  course  this  all  represents  too  low  an  expenditure 
for  any  reasonable  standard  of  efficiency.  Teachers  can 
Efficiency  depend-  "ot  afford  to  spend  money  in  special 
ent  on  salary  preparation  for  such  a  return  as  their 

salary  nets  them.  The  amount  they  receive  is  less  than  a 
living  wage,  and  leaves  no  margin  for  expenditure  in  the 
line  of  greater  efficiency.  Yet  out  of  this  meager  amount 
they  are  obliged  to  pay  for  a  certificate,  attend  teachers' 
meetings  and  conventions,  perhaps  subscribe  for  a  pro- 
fessional journal,  buy  a  few  books,  and  otherwise  keep 
up  with  the  times. 

But  it  is  useless  to  expect  the  impossible.  It  would  be 
unfair  to  expect  efficiency  on  any  such  basis  as  we  have 
described,  for  something  can  not  be  had  for  nothing  in 


FINANCIAL    SUPPORT  355 

education  any  more  than  in  business.  One  can  not  sow 
parsimony  and  reap  success.  One  of  the  results  of  this 
niggardly  policy  with  reference  to  rural  education  is 
appalling,  though  not  generally  realized :  that  in  spite 
of  the  unfavorable  conditions  in  our  cities,  illiteracy  in 
rural  territory  is  twice  as  great  as  in  urban  territory.^ 
This  is  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  thousands  of  illiterate 
immigrants  are  crowded  in  the  great  industrial  and  manu- 
facturing centers.  Illiteracy  among  children  born  of 
native  parentage  is  more  than  three  times  as  great  as 
among  the  children  born  in  this  country  of  foreign  par- 
entage, largely  on  account  of  the  lack  of  educational  op- 
portunities in  rural  America,  where  comparatively  few 
immigrants  live.  The  fact  is  that  the  people  of  rural 
America  have  been  so  busily  employed  in  taming  the  rich 
prairies,  garnering  harvests  from  the  alluvial  plains,  and 
building  fortunes  from  the  fruits  of  their  own  industry 
that  they  have  neglected  the  education  of  their  children. 
All  this  would  be  discouraging  indeed  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  many  indications  are  now  pointing  to 
Signs  of  im-  marked  improvement  in  rural-school 

provement  conditions.      The    movement    toward 

consolidation  has  already  been  referred  to.  New  build- 
ings in  large  numbers  are  under  construction  in  many 
states,  and  are,  as  a  rule,  of  a  far  better  type  than  those 
they  displace.  Better  grounds,  equipment  and  accommo- 
dations are  becoming  the  rule.  Legislation  is  being  ef- 
fected requiring  that  the  plans  for  all  new  school  build- 
ings must  be  approved  by  competent  educational  author- 
ity before  the  building  is  erected.    State  aid,  where  given 

*  See  Bulletin  Number  five  hundred  and  fifteen,  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  page  ten. 


356  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

to  rural  schools,  is  given  on  the  condition  that  certain  re- 
quirements shall  be  met  in  respect  to  the  type  of  building 
and  its  equipment.  Salaries  are  also  increasing.  A  num- 
ber of  states  have  passed  laws  fixing  the  minimum  salary 
at  which  teachers  may  be  employed,  and  establishing  that 
minimum  considerably  higher  than  it  averages  at  present. 
This  will  all  help,  but  much  yet  needs  to  be  accomplished. 
People  are  at  best  slow  to  move  toward  reform,  and 
especially  is  this  true  when  the  change  requires  greater 
expenditure  of  money.  But  more  money  is  the  first 
requisite  for  the  betterment  of  the  rural  schools,  and  no 
great  advance  can  be  made  until  this  increased  support  is 
available. 

It  is  true  that  only  a  certain  just  proportion  of  a  com- 
munity's wealth  can  go  into  education.  For  there  are  the 
Economic  basis  farms  to  improve,  the  homes  to  build, 
not  lacking  the  machinery  to  buy,  and  many  other 

things  to  accomplish,  which  require  the  expenditure  of 
money.  Yet  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  the  farmer 
is  at  present  putting  even  a  fair  proportion  of  his  wealth 
into  his  children's  schooling.  Certain  it  is  that  as  a 
nation  we  are  not  bankrupting  ourselves  in  what  we  spend 
on  public  education,  and  the  farmer  least  of  all.  It  has 
been  carefully  estimated  that  we  annually  expend  between 
two  and  three  times  as  much  for  tobacco  as  for  public 
education,  and  at  least  five  times  as  much  for  liquor.  In 
Iowa  the  egg  crop  pays  for  the  current  expense  of  the 
public  schools,  both  urban  and  rural.  Similar  illustra- 
tions might  be  used  to  show  that  it  is  not  poverty,  but 
indifference,  that  explains  the  lack  of  financial  support 
of  schools  in  every  state.  The  proportion  of  aggregate 
wealth  spent  annually  on  public  education  runs  all  the 


FINANCIAL    SUPPORT 


357 


358  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

way  from  seventy-five  cents  for  every  hundred  dollars' 
worth  of  property  in  Oklahoma,  and  seventy-two  cents 
for  every  hundred  dollars'  worth  in  Washington,  down 
to  twenty  cents  in  Wyoming,  and  nineteen  cents  in  New 
Hampshire.  In  spite  of  all  the  progress  that  has  been 
made,  it  is  probable  that  a  considerably  smaller  propor- 
tion of  the  wealth  of  our  people  is  going  into  education 
than  was  the  case  fifty  or  one  hundred  years  ago.  And 
this  is  especially  true  of  the  farming  population. 

Averaging  the  country  through,  about  seventy-two  per 
cent,  of  the  school  revenue  is  derived  from  local  taxes, 
Methods  of  levy-  levied  on  the  property  of  the  district, 
ing  school  tax  The    proportion    from    this    source 

ranges  all  the  way  from  ninety-seven  per  cent,  in  Massa- 
chusetts to  twenty-seven  per  cent,  in  Georgia.  The  re- 
mainder is  practically  all  received  from  state  taxation  and 
the  interest  on  permanent  school  funds. 

It  is  fully  evident  that,  with  the  schools  dependent  for 
almost  three-fourths  of  their  revenue  on  local  taxation 
voted  by  the  people  themselves,  the  financial  status  of  the 
rural  schools  is  dependent  on  local  pride  and  interest  in 
education.  It  is,  of  course,  to  be  kept  in  mind  that  the 
property  basis  for  taxation  in  rural  districts  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  in  towns  and  cities.  Farm  values  are 
not  piled  up  in  small  areas  like  city  values,  hence  the 
same  territory  can  not  supply  an  equal  amount  of  school 
tax.  Rural  property  can  and  should,  however,  pay  as 
high  a  rate  of  school  tax  for  the  same  school  privileges  as 
town  and  city  property.  Yet  it  does  not  pay  so  high  a 
rate  in  any  state,  and  the  rate  is  much  lower  in  most 
states. 

The  approximate  difference  in  the  local  school-tax  rate 
in  urban  and  rural  districts  is  shown  in  the  following 


FINANCIAL   SUPPORT  359 

instances  cited  in  a  recent  work ;  such  instances  might  be 

indefinitely  duplicated  from  other  states  :^ 

"In  Kansas,  the  local  school  tax  paid  in  1910  was  above 

eighty  per  cent,  more  than  that  paid  by  country  districts. 

In  Missouri  the  current  report  of  the 

Local  taxation  ^  ^  •  ^     j     ^    1  ^  * 

state  superintendent  shows  towns  and 

cities  seventy-five  per  cent,  higher  than  the  country. 
In  Minnesota,  towns  and  cities  average  nearly  three 
times  the  rate  paid  by  rural  districts.  In  Ohio,  towns 
and  cities  are  more  than  ten  per  cent,  higher  than 
rural  districts,  even  where  the  rural  districts  main- 
tain a  full  elementary  and  high-school  course.  In  Ne- 
braska and  Iowa  the  town  and  city  rate  is  fully  double 
that  of  the  country  districts."  The  discrepancy  is  stiU 
further  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  rural  property  is 
in  general  not  assessed  at  as  near  its  actual  value  as  the 
tangible  property  of  towns  and  cities. 

Of  course  the  rural  school-tax  rate  should  not  be  so 
high  as  that  of  towns  and  cities  when  the  latter  are  re- 
Farmers  able  to  ceiving  the  advantages  of  fully  organ- 
pay  for  schools  ized  elementary  and  high  schools,  and 
the  former  only  of  elementary  schools  of  doubtful  effi- 
ciency. But  the  point  is,  that  the  rural  property  in  most 
sections  of  the  country  affords  an  adequate  basis  for 
much  better  financial  support  of  the  rural  schools  if  its 
owners  are  only  willing  to  pay  as  freely  for  the  education 
of  their  children  as  is  done  by  the  urban  residents. 

Educational  advantages  would  be  very  greatly  equalized 
and  rural  education  in  general  much  better  supported  if 
Larger  taxing  ^^^    method    of    levying    school    tax 

unit  desirable  should    be    changed    to    make    the 

county  instead  of  the  individual  district  the  unit.    This 

*  Betts,  New  Ideals  in  Rural  Schools,  page  forty-four. 


•360  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

would  in  a  sense  pool  the  burden  of  support,  giving  the 
children  of  the  less  favored  communities  equal  oppor- 
tunities with  those  living  in  more  wealthy  regions.  Be- 
cause of  the  unequal  distribution  of  natural  wealth,  such 
as  soil,  mines,  factories,  location  for  cities,  etc.,  this  plan 
is  wholly  fair  and  just.  It  will  never  be  possible  under 
a  local  district  system  of  taxation  to  make  educational 
opportunities  in  any  considerable  degree  equal.  The 
presence  of  a  railway  running  through  one  district  and 
paying  a  heavy  tax  into  the  school  treasury  may  allow 
excellent  school  privileges  at  a  low  personal  tax  rate, 
while  an  adjoining  district  may  be  condemned  to  a  poor 
and  inefficient  school  even  while  paying  a  high  rate.  But 
let  the  taxes  be  levied  equally  on  the  property  of  an  entire 
county,  and  such  inequalities  will  in  large  degree  be 
eliminated,* 

An  extension  of  this  idea  has  been  carried  out  In  a 
number  of  states  by  granting  state  aid  to  such  schools  as 
State  aid  to  ^'^^^  meet  certain  prescribed  conditions 

schools  as  to  the  organization  of  their  schools, 

the  type  of  building  and  equipment,  the  studies  taught, 
and  the  preparation  of  the  teachers.  Massachusetts  be- 
gan this  policy  many  years  ago,  and  it  has  since  been  de- 
veloped in  different  forms  in  various  states.  State  aid 
is  now  given  for  the  consolidation  of  schools,  for  the 
organization  of  high  schools,  for  the  training  of  teachers 
in  special  courses  in  high  schools,  for  the  teaching  of 
certain  industrial  branches  in  the  schools,  and  for  main- 
taining certain  standards  of  work  as  shown  by  examina- 
tions given  pupils  in  the  schools. 

The  method  of  levying  and  distributing  school  taxes 

*  See  Cubberly,  The  Improvement  of  Rural  Schools,  Chapter 
Two. 


FINANCIAL    SUPPORT  361 

has,  therefore,  a  very  direct  relation  to  the  financial  sup- 
port of  rural  education.  The  most  desirable  taxation  sys- 
A  combined  county  tem  would  probably  be  a  system  that 
tem  best  makes  the  county  the  basis  of  local 

tax  levy,  with  a  supplementary  state  tax  paid  equally  to 
all  schools  of  the  county  on  condition  that  the  local  boards 
meet  certain  stipulated  requirements.  Added  to  this  may 
be  state  aid  for  the  carrying  out  of  some  special  line  of 
education  vital  to  the  interests  and  welfare  of  the  state. 
No  system  of  taxing  machinery  alone  will  solve  the 
problem  of  better  support  of  the  rural  schools,  however. 
Taxes  depend  on  For  o^r  taxes  are,  after  all,  finally 
public  sentiment  voted  by  the  people  or  their  repre- 
sentatives. And  only  as  the  patrons  of  the  rural  school 
are  aroused  to  the  necessity  for  better  education  for  their 
children,  and  to  the  possibilities  inherent  in  the  rural 
school  will  more  money  be  forthcoming  for  school  sup- 
port. Many  are  indifferent  to  the  advantages  of  educa- 
tion, and  still  look  on  it  rather  as  an  accomplishment  than 
a  necessity.  They  want  their  children  to  be  able  to  read 
and  write,  but  their  ideal  of  education  goes  little  beyond 
this.  Others  believe  in  a  general  way  in  education,  but  do 
not  realize  how  meager  and  inefficient  is  the  training 
offered  by  the  average  rural  school.  They  have  slight 
basis  for  comparing  the  advantages  of  different  schools, 
or  else  rather  helplessly  look  on  the  type  of  education 
given  town  children  as  beyond  what  they  can  afford  for 
their  own.  Still  others  contend  in  a  blind  sort  of  way 
that  the  rural  school  is  now  offering  excellent  opportu- 
nities for  education,  not  a  few  asserting  that  the  district 
school  is  far  ahead  of  the  town  school  in  what  it  can  do 
for  its  pupils.  Finally,  there  are  those  who  frankly  and 
defiantly  object  to  any  plan  or  project  that  will  cost  the 


362  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

district  additional  expense,  and  measure  all  values  by  this 
one  criterion.  These  are  the  ones  who  seek  the  teacher 
willing  to  accept  the  lowest  salary,  who  oppose  improve- 
ments in  building  or  equipment,  and  whose  first  question 
concerning  any  new  plan  is  whether  it  will  result  in 
greater  expense. 

What  the  rural  community  needs  more  than  anything 
else  is  an  educational  revival  that  will  touch  the  pocket- 
Need  of  an  educa-  books,  causing  the  taxpayers  to  see 
tional  revival  in  the  school  an  opportunity  for  finan- 

cial investment,  and  also  an  opportunity  to  pay  the  debt 
that  society  owes  to  the  children.  Good  schools  yield  an 
abundant  return  in  dollars  and  cents,  but  this  is  not  the 
only  reason  they  should  be  well  supported ;  they  also  pay 
as  great  returns  in  largeness  of  life,  happiness  and  effi- 
ciency. And  it  is  good  for  a  community  to  conceive  its 
school  in  this  light  as  well  as  in  the  other. 

The  rural  schools  require  better  financial  support ;  there 
is  abundant  wealth  to  supply  this  support.  The  problem 
is  to  make  this  need  clear  to  those  who  control  the  purse- 
strings,  to  convince  them  that  money  spent  on  education 
is  well  invested,  and  finally  to  arrange  our  tax  machinery 
better  so  as  to  equalize  the  financial  burden  of  supporting 
the  schools. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION   AND  STUDY 

1.  What  reasons  lie  back  of  the  fact  that  the  rural 
schools  have  lagged  so  far  behind  the  town  schools  in 
financial  support?  Are  the  farmers  as  well  able  to  pay 
a  reasonable  tax  rate  as  city  people? 

2.  School-tax  rates  in  towns  and  cities  usually  average 
from  two  to  three  times  as  high  as  in  the  country.  Com- 


FINANCIAL   SUPPORT  363 

pare  the  rates  for  a  township  in  your  county.     (The  as- 
sessor or  county  auditor  can  supply  rate.) 

3.  Make  a  somewhat  detailed  comparison  of  all  lines 
of  recent  improvement  in  town  and  rural  schools  of 
your  county.  Also  compare  school  interest  and  loyalty. 
How  do  you  account  for  the  difference?  What  needs 
to  be  done  ? 

4.  What  has  been  the  trend  in  salaries  in  your  county 
recently?  Is  it  fair  to  demand  better  preparation  of 
teachers  if  salaries  are  to  be  raised,  or  are  present  stand- 
ards high  enough? 

5.  Where  does  your  state  rank  (according  to  the 
chart  shown  in  the  chapter)  in  the  proportion  of  its  total 
wealth  going  into  education?  Do  you  think  the  people 
should  be  taught  to  want  to  spend  more  for  education? 

6.  Can  you  state  the  argument  for  and  against  a 
county  versus  a  township  basis  for  school  taxation? 
For  a  large  proportion  of  state  tax  going  to  support 
schools?     (See  Cubberly  as  cited  in  chapter.) 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  CARE  OF  BUILDINGS  AND  GROUNDS 

New  methods  must  obtain  in  providing  for  the  care  of 
rural-school  buildings  and  grounds.  Three  factors  have 
Factors  demanding  arisen  that  render  this  imperative : 
change  of  methods  (i)  The  increased  burden  and  re- 
sponsibility thrust  on  the  teacher  by  the  addition  of  new 
subjects  to  the  curriculum  and  the  demand  for  higher 
standards  of  teaching;  (2)  the  growing  insistence  for 
improved  hygienic  conditions  in  the  school,  which  entails 
much  additional  work  in  the  care  of  the  building;  (3)  the 
larger  size  of  the  rural- school  buildings  and  the  greater 
amount  of  equipment  demanding  care  and  attention. 

From  time  immemorial  a  part  of  the  rural  teacher's 
duties  have  been  to  serve  as  school  janitor.  In  early  New 
England  this  custom  extended  to  village  schools  also,  and 
not  infrequently  the  schoolmaster  had  not  only  the  care 
of  the  schoolhouse,  but  of  the  church  as  well.  That  there 
might  be  no  question  that  he  fully  earned  his  salary,  the 
task  of  digging  the  village  graves  was  often  added  to  his 
responsibilities.  But  with  the  passing  of  the  pioneer 
days,  the  town  and  city  teachers  have  escaped  the  de- 
mands of  manual  labor  about  the  buildings.  Such  work 
has  been  handed  over  to  janitors  employed  especially  for 
this  service. 

But  this  is  not  the  case  in  rural  schools.  More  than 
ninety  per  cent,  of  the  rural  teachers  of  the  United  States 

364 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    365 

are  still  expected  to  do  all  the  janitor  work  required  by 
the  school,  and  in  most  cases  without  extra  compensation 
Rural  teachers  and  therefor.  This  is  to  say  that  the 
janitor  service  rural  community  has  not  yet  come  to 

look  on  teaching  as  skilled  labor,  much  less  as  a  pro- 
fessional occupation,  since  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
time  for  which  the  teacher  is  employed  is  required  in  the 
simplest  kind  of  manual  work. 

The  rural  teacher  should  not  be  required  nor  allowed  to 
perform  the  janitor  service  for  any  school.  This  is  not  a 
question  of  the  teacher  being  above  the  manual  work  in- 
volved ;  there  is  nothing  degrading  in  the  mere  fact  of 
sweeping  and  dusting  a  room  and  starting  a  fire.  The 
question  is  rather  one  of  business  and  professional  ex- 
pediency. Can  the  district  afford  to  have  the  teacher  de- 
vote time  and  energy  to  such  employment,  and  can  the 
teacher  afford  to  spend  his  time  and  energy  in  such  a 
manner  ? 

It  is  a  very  serious  problem  that  the  rural  teacher  of 
the  present  confronts  in  making  daily  preparation  for  his 
work.  In  the  district  schools  he  is  attempting  to  teach 
twenty-five  or  more  recitations  a  day.  These  classes  em- 
brace almost  the  whole  scope  of  the  elementary  curric- 
ulum and  deal  with  children  of  all  ages  from  five  or  six 
years  up  to  fifteen  or  eighteen.  In  the  old-time  school, 
the  teacher  who  was  prepared  in  arithmetic,  reading, 
writing  and  perhaps  geography,  had  covered  the  range  re- 
quired of  him.  Preparation  for  the  day's  work,  therefore, 
included  only  these  few  branches.  There  were  no  nature 
study,  agriculture  and  domestic-science  lessons  to  plan. 
Literature,  history,  art  and  music  demanded  none  of  his 
attention.  Corn  clubs,  canning  clubs  and  school  gardens 
made  no  inroads  on  his  time.    There  were  no  scientific 


366  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

experiments  to  prepare,  no  home  projects  to  supervise, 
and  no  language  themes  to  correct  or  examination  papers 
to  grade. 

The  rural  teacher  of  to-day  has  all  these  demands  on 
his  time  and  strength.     The  burden  is  already  far  too 

Whole  of  teacher's  ^^^^^'  ^"^  "^"^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^"  ^^  ^^^ 
time  and  energy  of  teachers  in  any  other  section  of  our 
belong  to  teaching  school  system.  The  rural  teacher 
should  therefore  have  thrust  on  him  no  outside  duties 
that  will  take  his  time,  distract  his  attention,  endanger 
his  health,  or  in  any  way  lower  his  energy ;  for  the  prob- 
lems of  teaching  require  every  resource  of  mind  and 
body.  It  is  a  short-sighted  policy  and  a  false  view  of 
economy  that  permit  a  school  board  to  devote  any  part 
of  the  teacher's  time  to  such  work  as  sweeping,  dusting 
and  the  care  of  the  room.  For  these  things  can  be 
done  equally  well  by  less  expensive  labor. 

The  time  that  thousands  of  rural  teachers  are  required 
to  spend  each  morning  in  building  the  fire  and  getting  the 

_.  .    J  f       room  ready  for  the  day's  work  is  one 

Time  required  for  -^  ^    ,       i        r 

preparation  or  of  the  best  hours  of  the  day  for  the 

recreation  study  and  planning  of  lessons.     This 

time  should  be  devoted  to  preparing  for  higher  efficiency 
in  teaching — to  reviewing  for  the  recitation,  to  outlining 
new  projects  of  work,  to  professional  reading  and 
thought.  When  the  teacher  arrives  at  the  building  in  the 
morning  he  should  find  it  well  heated,  cleaned  and  aired, 
and  all  in  readiness  for  beginning  the  day.  He  should 
have  no  more  direct  responsibility  for  the  care  of  the 
schoolroom  than  has  the  town  teacher.  To  violate  this 
simple  and  obvious  business  principle  shows  an  out-of- 
date  and  narrow  policy  that  ill  matches  the  progressive 
spirit  now  ruling  in  commercial  and  industrial  affairs. 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    367 

The  teacher  needs  all  the  time  that  is  free  from  the 
actual  school-day  and  preparation  for  the  succeeding 
day's  work  in  healthful  exercise  and  recreation  out-of- 
doors.  The  hour,  more  or  less,  demanded  for  the  daily 
care  of  the  schoolroom  is  of  necessity  stolen  from  study, 
reading  and  recuperation.  The  custom,  prevalent  in  many 
communities,  of  paying  the  teacher  a  slight  sum  addi- 
tional to  the  regular  salary  for  doing  the  janitor  work 
can  not  be  too  strongly  condemned ;  nor  should  any 
teacher  enter  into  such  an  arrangement.  Where  the 
board  is  willing  to  pay  for  the  janitor  service,  the  work 
should  be  done  by  some  person  other  than  the  teacher. 

Careful  statistical  studies  have  shown  beyond  ques- 
tion that  teaching  is  one  of  the  most  unhealthful  occu- 

_,      , .  nations,  and  is  highly  exhausting  to  the 

Teaching  an  un-        ^  '  ,      ,  ,     ^    ;      .     ,.         ^^ 

healthful  occupa-       general   health   and  vitality.      Not   a 

tion  at  best  little  of  this  difficulty  comes  from  the 

long  hours  spent  in  a  dusty  and  ill-kept  room,  usually 
in  an  atmosphere  breathed  many  times  over,  and  not  in- 
frequently shared  by  those  who  have  communicable  dis- 
eases. The  dangers  are  clearly  increased  by  requiring  the 
teacher  to  sweep  and  dust  the  schoolroom  where  he  has 
already  received  more  dust  and  germs  into  his  lungs  than 
his  vitality  can  withstand.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the 
appallingly  high  tuberculosis  rate  prevalent  among  teach- 
ers is  in  part  due  to  the  practise  of  requiring  janitor 
service  of  most  of  our  rural  teachers. 

The  widespread  movement  toward  a  higher  standard 

of  public  hygiene  vastly   increases   the  work   involved 

in  caring  for  the  schoolroom.    The  old 

Better  hygienic  system  of  washing  the  floor  once  a 

standards  require        •'  .  ®  . 

additional  janitor      year,  sweeping  once  or  twice  a  week 

service  and    dusting   hardly    at    all   will    no 


368  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

longer  serve.  Not  only  an  enlightened  public  sentiment, 
but  legislative  enactment  is  insisting  that  more  attention 
be  given  to  insuring  cleanliness  and  hygienic  conditions 
under  which  to  carry  on  the  school.  Probably  not  less 
than  three  or  four  times  the  labor  formerly  expended 
on  the  care  of  the  school  buildings  and  equipment  is 
coming  to  be  demanded  under  the  newer  standards. 
This  is  to  say,  the  rural  teacher  who  keeps  his  school  a 
model  of  hygienic  cleanliness  must  greatly  add  to  his 
already  excessive  burden,  if  he  is  to  continue  to  serve  as 
a  janitor. 

The  increased  size  of  modern  rural-school  buildings, 
the  addition  of  basements,  cloak-rooms,  and  toilet  rooms 
Modern  buildings  ^^^^^  further  complicates  the  problem 
demand  more  care  of  janitor  service.  Not  only  must 
the  frequency  of  sweeping  be  greatly  multiplied,  but 
the  amount  of  floor  space  to  be  swept  has  been  doubled 
or  trebled.  Not  only  has  it  been  decreed  that  windows 
must  be  washed  more  often,  but  the  amount  of  window 
space  now  demanded  is  greater.  Not  only  are  we  coming 
to  insist  that  blackboards,  erasers  and  chalk  troughs  shall 
be  kept  free  from  dust,  but  we  are  employing  eight  or  ten 
times  the  amount  of  blackboard  space   formerly  used. 

The  time  has  already  come  in  many  rural  schools,  and 
is  rapidly  coming  in  others,  when  the  grounds  and  out- 
Care  required  by  ^ide  belongings  must  also  have  a  large 
school  grounds  share  of   attention.     The  adding  of 

trees  and  shrubs,  the  planting  of  school  flower  and  ex- 
perimental gardens,  and  the  installation  of  play  appa- 
ratus must  finally  lead  to  the  expenditure  of  a  greater 
amount  of  time  in  the  care  of  this  part  of  the  school 
equipment.  True,  much  of  the  work  to  be  done  on  the 
school  grounds,  gardens  and  other  exterior  appointments 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS     369 

can  and  should  be  accomplished  by  the  pupils  under  the 
instruction  of  the  teacher.  But  there  will  always  remain 
portions  of  the  work  that  can  not  well  be  carried  out 
without  assistance.  Especially,  should  the  care  of  the 
premises  required  during  the  vacation  time  not  be  left 
to  chance  or  volunteer  service. 

The  time  is  therefore  ripe  for  a  change.  The  teacher- 
janitor  system  belonged  to  a  day  of  simpler  standards, 
fewer  responsibilities,  and  greater  necessity  for  petty 
economieSo  A  generation  ago  the  groceryman  proprie- 
tor of  the  crossroads  store  might  afford  to  sweep  out  his 
store  at  night  after  his  customers  were  served,  but  the 
modern  business  man  can  employ  his  time  better  than  in 
thus  saving  a  few  cents.  The  teacher  of  a  modern  school 
should  no  more  be  found  sweeping  his  schoolroom  than 
a  merchant  should  be  found  sweeping  his  store,  a  doctor 
his  office,  or  a  minister  his  church. 

Nor  is  the  question  alone  whether  it  is  expedient  to 
burden  the  teacher  with  responsibility  for  the  care  of 
-  f    ffi  •  ^^^  school  plant.     The  fact  is  that 

through  teacher-  the  school  plant  is  not  being  properly 
janitors  taken  care  of  under  teacher- janitors. 

Not  infrequently  expensive  apparatus  and  equipment  are 
so  neglected  or  misused  as  soon  to  be  of  little  service.  A 
recent  visit  to  a  rural  school  showed  not  less  than  five 
hundred  dollars'  worth  of  charts,  wall  maps,  atlases,  dic- 
tionaries, cyclopaedias  and  other  miscellaneous  material 
littered  here  and  there  about  the  building.  Some  of  it 
was  on  dusty  shelves,  some  of  it  stacked  on  an  old  table, 
some  of  it  piled  in  a  corner,  and  some  of  it  deposited  in 
an  attic  reached  only  by  means  of  a  trap  door.  Out  of 
all  this  costly  supply,  almost  none  was  available  for  use, 
simply  because  it  had  not  been  taken  care  of.    The  dis- 


370  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

trict  had  furnished  no  special  place  suitable  for  storing 
the  material,  and  the  teachers  had  been  too  busy-  or  tired 
to  look  after  it.  Both  the  district  and  the  school  lost 
by  economizing  on  janitor  service. 

A  number  of  states  have  a  law  making  it  mandatory 
on  school  officials  to  supply  each  school  with  a  United 
The  forgotten  States   flag.     The  flag   is   purchased 

schoolhouse  flag  and  sent  to  the  school,  and  perhaps  a 
flag-staff  erected.  The  flag  is  used  a  few  times,  and 
then  laid  away  on  top  of  a  cupboard,  or  in  some  desk  or 
cloak-room,  where  it  is  forgotten.  Soon  it  is  soiled  and 
covered  with  dust  and  unsuitable  for  use.  It  has  served 
neither  the  purposes  of  decoration  nor  of  patriotism, 
and  only  adds  to  the  accumulation  of  dead  property  in  the 
school. 

Neglect  of  the  physical  equipment  of  the  school  af- 
fects not  only  its  efficiency  but  frequently  endangers  the 
health  of  the  pupils.     An  investiga- 
Health  endangered    ^[q^  Qf  qj^^  rural  schoolhouse  showed 
by  neglect  ,  .     ,        .    ,  ,  , 

that  not  a  smgle  wmdow  would  open 

from  the  top,  and  only  two  windows  from  the  bottom. 
These  windows  had  all  been  stuck  fast  with  paint  five 
years  before,  and  no  one  had  made  it  his  business  to  see 
that  they  were  loosened.  Who  knows  how  many  colds, 
sore  throats  and  cases  of  pneumonia  or  tuberculosis 
might  be  traced  to  this  criminal  negligence!  Another 
source  of  grave  danger  has  been  discovered  in  the  en- 
closed water  jars  prescribed  by  law  in  certain  states  to 
replace  the  open  pail.  Official  inspection  of  these  jars 
during  the  year  1913  showed  many  of  them  wholly  unfit 
for  use,  and  far  more  dangerous  than  the  condemned 
water  pail.  Not  a  few  of  them,  when  the  lid  was  re- 
moved, gave  forth  a  stench  that  permeated  the  entire 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    371 

room.  Inquiry  revealed  the  fact  that  these  closed  re- 
ceptacles had  not  been  cleaned  or  sterilized  during  an 
entire  term,  and  a  few  of  them  not  since  they  were 
installed  almost  a  year  before! 

A  great  cry  has  recently  gone  up   against  the  un- 
jacketed  school  stove,  and  this  book  has  added  its  voice 

Janitors  responsi-  *«  ^^^  ^^"^""^^  condemnation.  Yet  one 
ble  for  unjacketed  who  visits  the  rural  schools,  very  frc^ 
®*°^®®  quently  finds  a  perfectly  good  stove 

jacket  standing  in  a  corner  of  the  room,  while  the 
uncovered  red-hot  stove  sends  its  withering  blast  of 
heat  directly  out  on  the  children — usually  the  smaller 
ones — who  are  seated  near  it.  Is  this  an  argument 
against  providing  jackets  for  the  stoves? — Not  in  the 
least.  The  jacket  was  removed  during  the  spring  to 
gain  more  space  in  the  room,  and  the  next  teacher  did 
not  know  how  to  replace  it,  or  else  the  screws  were  lost. 
In  other  cases  the  screws  attaching  the  jacket  to  the  floor 
had  come  out,  and  no  screw-driver  was  available  to  re- 
place them.  In  a  few  instances  thoughtless  teachers 
have  removed  the  jackets  because  they  have  found  it 
easier  to  build  fires  and  remove  ashes  without  them. 
The  remedy  lies  in  having  a  janitor  employed  who  will 
see  that  all  school  equipment  is  in  serviceable  condition. 
In  not  a  few  new  rural-school  buildings  where  ad- 
justable seats  have  been  provided,  the  children  are  found 
Other  defects  from  sitting  in  seats  which  do  not  fit  them, 
lack  of  oversight  simply  because  the  teacher — perhaps 
some  young  girl — either  does  not  understand  the  mecha- 
nism of  the  seats  or  has  not  taken  the  time  to  adjust  them. 
In  some  schools  the  adjustable  seats  have  been  discov- 
ered, after  several  years  of  use,  all  set  at  the  same  size, 
although  occupied  by  children  of  all  ages  from  six  to 


372  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

eighteen.  The  most  modern  equipment  or  apparatus  will 
mean  but  little  to  either  pupils  or  teacher  if  it  is  not  prop- 
erly cared  for  and  used.  In  a  new  rural  schoolhouse  so 
built  that  the  light  might  all  come  from  one  side,  the 
county  superintendent  on  his  first  visit  several  months 
after  the  school  opened,  found  that  the  seats  had  been 
so  placed  that  the  pupils  all  sat  directly  facing  the  light ! 
The  seats  had  been  put  in  place  by  a  farmer  who  did 
not  understand  the  principles  of  lighting  schoolrooms, 
and  no  responsible  person  was  at  hand  to  supervise  the 
work. 

Investigation  recently  made  in  a  rich  northern  state 
to  discover  the  actual  amount  of  attention  being  given 

Equipment  and  ^°  ^^^  ^^""^  ^^  ^^^  rural-school  plant, 
apparatus  out  of  revealed  a  grave  situation.  Fewer 
°^^^^  than  one-half  the  schools  investigated 

had  scrubbed  their  floors  within  the  current  school  year. 
As  large  a  number  had  not  washed  the  windows  or 
cleaned  the  interior  walls.  Almost  none  had  cleaned  the 
pupils'  desks.  Some  confessed  that  the  blackboards  and 
erasers  were  never  given  a  thorough  cleansing  of  crayon 
dust.  Library  books  were  scattered  here  and  there  over 
the  room,  lying  on  desk  tops,  on  window-sills,  and  even 
on  the  floor.  The  books  were  ragged  and  torn  and  soiled, 
not  from  use,  but  from  abuse.  Few  of  the  schools  had 
mowed  the  weeds  and  long  grass  from  the  school  yard. 
Far  more  than  half  had  dumped  the  ashes  in  a  great 
heap  in  the  middle  of  the  grounds.  Loose  paper,  brush, 
lunch  boxes  and  other  rubbish  littered  the  yard  in  many 
cases.  The  majority  of  the  outbuildings  were  absolutely 
revolting.  In  many  instances  they  bore  indecent  mark- 
ings, some  of  which  were  of  long  standing.  They  were 
indescribably  filthy,  the  doors  were  oflf  the  hinges,  and 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    373 

the  appliances  disfigured  and  broken.  Inquiry  revealed  that 
scores  of  these  outbuildings  had  had  no  inspection  or 
care  for  months.  No  provision  had  been  made  to  have 
such  matters  attended  to,  and  careless  or  overworked 
teachers  had  neglected  them. 

The  young  teacher  beginning  work  in  the  rural  school 
usually  knows  little  about  caring  for  fires  and  managing  a 

,,    J    r  ^  stove  or  furnace.    The  result  is  seen 

Need  of  expert  .,,,,.  ,  ,        ,      .         ,      - 

care  of  heating  in  buildmgs  too  cold  to  begm  school 

apparatus  qj^  ^[^^q  .  [^  rooms  greatly  overheated 

at  times ;  and  in  stoves  and  furnaces  burned  out  with 
half  the  service  they  are  supposed  to  render.  Not  in- 
frequently stoves  have  to  be  replaced  every  two  or  three 
years.  Of  course  a  large  amount  of  fuel  is  wasted  by 
such  over-firing,  to  say  nothing  of  the  loss  of  oxygen  un- 
necessarily burned  from  the  air  to  be  breathed  by  the 
school. 

Not  all  of  the  schools  that  employ  a  janitor,  however, 
provide  for  the  smaller  details,  many  of  which  are  among 
the  most  important  matters  in  the 
have°ull  responsi-  administration  of  the  school.  Even  in 
bility  for  physical  some  of  the  better  consolidated 
equipment  schools,  the  only  provision  made  for 

janitor  service  is  to  hire  some  man,  or  perhaps  boy,  to 
build  fires,  sweep  and  clear  paths  of  snow.  In  very 
few  instances  is  a  competent  person  employed  with  the 
understanding  that  he  is  to  have  charge  of  the  physical 
equipment  of  the  school,  and  be  responsible,  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher,  for  all  details  connected  with  it. 
Yet  this  is  precisely  what  is  required  before  we  can  put 
rural  education  on  a  rational  business  basis. 

Every  public  school,  large  or  small,  should  have  some 
custodian  responsible  to  the  school  officers  for  the  care 


374  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

of  the  school  plant.  In  all  matters  relating  to  the  work  of 
the  school,  the  janitor  should  be  under  the  general  di- 
Employing  the  rection   of  the  teacher.     He   should 

janitor  ^^   employed   on   a   written   contract 

that  specifies  in  detail  his  duties  and  responsibilities.  He 
should  be  instructed  in  hygienic  methods  of  caring  for  a 
room,  in  the  matter  of  ventilation  and  heating,  in  the 
care  of  apparatus  and  equipment,  and  all  else  that  goes 
to  insure  the  best  working  conditions  of  a  school.  He 
should  be  a  man  who  believes  in  cleanliness,  and  has  an 
eye  to  neatness  and  order.  The  position  of  janitor  is 
no  place  for  the  aged  or  decrepit  person  unable  to  get 
work  elsewhere,  nor  for  one  who  is  lazy,  or  who  has 
a  tendency  to  shirk. 

The  janitor's  contract,  with  modifications  to  meet  special 
conditions,  should  in  general  provide  that  the  room,  equip- 
ment and  apparatus  be  made  ready  for  each  day's  ses- 
sion and  kept  at  all  times  at  the  highest  state  of  efficiency. 
This  will  include  such  matters  as  heat,  ventilation,  clean- 
liness, repairing,  and  neatness  and  order  in  having  all 
material  and  apparatus  in  its  proper  place. 

More  specifically,  the  obligations  of  the  janitor  should 
Provisions  of  cover    such    points    as    the    follow- 

janitor's  contract       ing: 

I.  That  the  schoolroom  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
approximately  seventy  degrees  at  least  one-half  hour  be- 
fore time  for  opening  the  session;  and,  if  it  is  possible 
to  have  the  janitor  remain  at  the  building,  that  this  tem- 
perature be  maintained  throughout  the  day  without  care 
or  attention  from  the  teacher.  This  is  plainly  a  part  of 
the  janitor's  duty,  and  the  teacher  should  be  charged  only 
with  the  responsibility  of  general  oversight  concern- 
ing it. 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    375 

2.  That  the  schoolroom,  cloak-room  and  halls  be  care- 
fully swept  at  the  close  of  each  day's  session,  using  some 
of  the  approved  floor  preparations  effective  in  preventing 
the  rise  of  dust;  that  all  furniture,  window  ledges,  and 
other  parts  of  the  room  on  which  dust  can  lodge  be 
thoroughly  dusted  each  morning  before  the  arrival  of  the 
pupils  with  a  cloth  so  treated  with  a  suitable  liquid 
preparation  intended  for  this  purpose  that  the  dust  shall 
be  wholly  removed  and  not  distributed  in  the  air. 

3.  That  the  floors  be  scrubbed  with  soap  and  water, 
or,  if  made  of  finished  hard  wood,  cleaned  with  a  special 
floor  preparation  every  two  weeks ;  that  the  desk  tops  be 
washed  in  a  similar  way  as  frequently  as  once  a  month, 
and  the  interior  of  the  desks  kept  constantly  free  from 
rubbish  and  dust. 

4.  That  all  blackboards  and  erasers  be  cleaned  and 
dusted  daily. 

5.  That  the  windows  be  washed  every  four  to  eight 
weeks,  depending  on  the  amount  of  dust  or  smoke  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  schoolhouse. 

6.  That  all  outhouses  be  inspected  and  swept  every 
day,  kept  clean  at  all  times,  and  free  from  marks  or 
other  objectionable  defacements;  that  all  refuse  be  cov- 
ered daily  by  dry  soil  or  ashes ;  and  that  a  disinfectant 
approved  by  medical  authorities  and  supplied  by  the  dis- 
trict be  applied  as  often  as  once  each  week.  In  the  case 
of  interior  toilet  rooms  the  same  principles  are  to  apply, 
and  the  disinfectant  to  be  used  as  frequently  as  in  the 
outdoor  closets. 

7.  That  fresh  drinking  water  be  supplied  for  all  ses- 
sions ;  and  that  the  drinking  utensils  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  If  a  pail  or  covered  jar  is  used,  it,  together  with 
the  cups,  is  to  be  scalded  once  each  week.    If  a  filter  is 


376  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

employed,  the  rules  supplied  by  the  factory  governing  it? 
use  are  to  be  followed  explicitly  in  cleansing  it.  If 
water  is  used  from  a  well  on  the  premises,  a  sufficient 
amount  must  be  pumped  daily  to  insure  a  fresh  flow  in 
the  well,  and  all  refuse  kept  away  from  the  well. 

8.  That  lavatories,  wash  basins,  soap  dishes,  or  other 
toilet  articles  in  common  use  be  kept  clean  at  all  times ; 
and  that,  if  a  common  towel  is  permitted,  at  least  one 
clean  towel  a  day  be  supplied. 

9.  That  all  school  supplies  and  apparatus,  such  as 
maps,  globes,  charts,  references  works,  etc.,  be  brought 
out  for  use  or  replaced  in  accordance  with  the  directions 
of  the  teacher. 

10.  That  all  minor  repairs  to  apparatus  or  equipment 
be  made  by  the  janitor  as  needed,  so  that  the  school  plant 
shall  constantly  show  care  and  attention  and  be  ready 
for  use. 

11.  That  walks  and  paths  be  cleared  of  snow;  that 
the  school  yard  be  cared  for,  mown  when  necessary,  and 
kept  free  from  ashes,  waste  paper,  or  any  other  form  of 
rubbish ;  that  fences  and  gates  be  kept  in  repair ;  and 
that  trees,  shrubs,  or  school  gardens  shall  receive  such 
care  as  may  be  agreed  on,  both  during  the  school  ses- 
sion and  vacations. 

12.  That  the  janitor  be  responsible  for  the . appliances 
furnished  him  for  carrying  on  his  work;  that  he  be 
charged  with  locking  the  building  each  night;  and  that 
he  perform  any  other  reasonable  duties  asked  of  him  by 
the  teacher. 

Besides  the  service  provided  for  in  such  an  agreement 
with  the  regular  custodian,  the  school  property  will  need 
certain  other  care  and  attention.  Not  infrequently  re- 
painting is  neglected  until  the  building  presents  an  un- 


CARE   OF   BUILDINGS   AND    GROUNDS    377 

kempt  appearance,  and  has  also  been  permanently  dam- 
aged by  the  weather.  Roof-gutters,  allowed  to  rust  for 
want  of  paint,  rust  through,  and  the  plaster  or  interior 
decorations  are  injured.  Chimneys  or  foundations  dis- 
integrate for  want  of  repointing,  or  the  roof  leaks  be- 
cause of  a  few  loose  shingles.  The  building  should  be 
carefully  inspected  each  year  before  the  opening  of  the 
school  for  such  needed  repairs.  The  old  adage,  "A 
stitch  in  time  saves  nine,"  is  true  nowhere  more  than  in 
the  case  of  public  property ;  and  school  boards  should 
come  to  see  the  necessity  for  applying  to  the  care  of 
the  school  plant  the  same  business  methods  employed  in 
the  management  of  the  farm  or  shop.  Nor  should  the 
teacher  fail  to  remember  that  his  responsibility  includes 
the  material  as  well  as  the  mental  interests  of  the  school. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion   AND   STUDY 

1.  How  much  time  each  day  would  be  required  to 
keep  your  school  building  in  good  hygienic  condition 
and  all  accessory  work  about  the  school  done?  Have 
you  the  time  to  do  this  work?    Have  you  the  strength? 

2.  Do  you  agree  with  the  statement  that  a  rural 
teacher  should  not  do  the  janitor  work  even  if  paid  for 
it?    Do  you  think  the  dust  of  sweeping  injures  you? 

3.  How  often  is  your  schoolroom  floor  scrubbed?  The 
windows  washed?  The  desks  revarnished?  The  walls 
cleaned  ?  The  outhouses  looked  after  ?  The  yard  mowed 
and  cleaned?  Compare  this  with  the  conditions  in  town 
schools. 

4.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  water  supply  of  your 
school?  Are  you  certain  that  all  drinking  utensils  are 
free  from  pollution? 

5.  What  does  your  school  need  in  the  way  of  book- 


378  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

cases,  cupboards,  shelves,  shades  and  the  like?     Have 
you  ever  asked  to  have  these  things  supplied? 

6.  Are  all  your  desks  adjusted  to  the  sizes  of  your 
pupils  ?    Are  the  conditions  of  lighting  satisfactory  ? 

7.  Does  your  school  yard  need  attention?  Is  there 
any  understanding  about  who  is  to  do  this  work? 

8.  What  is  your  judgment  of  the  janitor  contract 
proposed?  Does  your  school  have  all  the  service  this 
contract  specifies?  Is  there  any  thing  unnecessary  in 
the  contract  ?  Can  you  persuade  your  district  to  employ 
a  janitor  under  such  contract? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  ONE-ROOM  SCHOOL 

The  one-room  school  is  a  present  necessity.     It  is 

still  the  largest  factor  in  rural  education  and  will  con- 

_.  tinue  to  be  so  for  a  number  of  years 

The  one-room  •' 

school  still  a  to  come.     There  are  now  some  six 

necessity  million  boys  and  girls  from  the  farms 

who  will  receive  all  the  education  they  ever  get  in  these 
district  schools.  That  the  rural  schools  of  a  coming  day 
will  be  consolidated,  graded  and  equipped  as  well  as  the 
city  school  does  not  immediately  affect  a  majority  of 
this  generation  of  rural  pupils.  In  spite  of  all  the 
progress  that  is  being  made,  it  is  probable  that  far  more 
than  half  of  those  now  entering  the  rural  school  for  the 
first  time  will  never  attend  any  other  school  than  that 
taught  in  their  home  district.  For  a  great  school  system 
can  not  be  made  over  in  a  day,  no  matter  how  progres- 
sive the  constituency.  And  especially  is  this  true  in  a 
democracy,  where  the  people  themselves  directly  con- 
trol their  own  educational  affairs,  and  move  only  after 
lethargy  has  been  overcome  and  conviction  established. 
We  may  therefore  accept  the  one-room  district  school, 
for  the  present  at  least,  as  a  part  of  our  educational  sys- 
Capable  of  im-  ^^^-    ^^^  problem  then  becomes  how 

provement  to  make  the  thousands  of  these  schools 

as  good  as  they  can  become.     For  they  are  not  to  be 
accepted  as  they  are,  and  tolerated  at  their  present  low 

379 


38o  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

grade  of  efficiency.  Even  where  consolidation  with  its 
indisputable  advantages  is  at  present  impracticable  the 
one-room  school  can  be  placed  on  a  new  and  higher 
basis,  and  its  value  almost  infinitely  increased. 

The  district  school  has  already  felt  the  stimulus  of  the 
general  uplift  in  education,  and  in  many  regions  has  made 
decided  progress.  The  consolidated  school  has  set  a 
higher  standard  for  all  rural  schools,  and  its  example  of 
efficiency  is  being  emulated  in  hundreds  of  schools  not 
yet  ready  to  consolidate.  Many  rural-school  patrons 
and  officers  are  now  earnestly  seeking  to  afford  the  coun- 
try children  educational  facilities  equal  to  those  of  the 
town.  State  and  county  superintendents  and  rural-school 
supervisors  are  bending  every  effort  to  the  same  end. 

Probably  the  greatest  need  in  the  campaign  for  better 
district  schools  is  some  standard  or  criterion  of  efficiency. 
Need  for  a  standard  ^ost  rural-school  patrons  do  not 
of  efficiency  know  how  far  their  school  is  behind 

the  times.  They  are  not  aware  of  the  great  progress 
recently  made  in  education,  nor  of  the  increased  demands 
for  education  made  on  the  individual.  They  do  not 
realize  what  more  progressive  communities  are  doing  for 
their  schools,  nor  that  it  would  be  possible  for  them  to 
make  their  own  schools  as  good.  There  is  no  intention 
of  handicapping  the  children  for  want  of  education,  but 
lack  of  standards  renders  many  rural-school  patrons  in- 
capable of  understanding  that  they  are  falling  short  of 
simple  duty  to  their  children.  They  need  to  be  awakened 
educationally.  They  need  to  have  placed  before  them  the 
opportunities  their  children  are  missing.  For  it  is  lack 
of  comprehension  rather  than  indifference  or  miserliness 
that  most  often  explains  the  present  failure  to  supply 
better  schools. 


THE    ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  381 

In  order  to  be  effective  this  educational  campaign  must 
be  carried  on  in  the  most  practical  and  concrete  way 
possible;  example  is  far  better  than  precept.  A  high- 
grade,  efficient  school,  actually  organized  and  run  under 
average  rural  conditions,  is  objective  proof  impossible 
of  contradiction.  Such  a  school  standardizes  education 
for  its  entire  vicinity,  and  is  a  powerful  stimulus  to  other 
districts.  It  also  defines  the  direction  that  improvements 
should  take,  and  thereby  renders  definite  the  aim  for 
other  schools  to  follow. 

In  order  thus  to  standardize  rural  schools  and  supply 
some  criterion  by  which  they  may  be  measured,  the  plan 
Standardizing  ^^^  been  adopted  in  some  places  of 

rural  schools  establishing  what  may  be  called  stand- 

ard schools;  or  superior  schools,  basing  such  recognition 
on  certain  definite  standards  of  excellence.  In  Illinois, 
for  example,  the  school  grounds  and  house  furnishings, 
heating,  library,  water  supply,  outhouses,  qualifications 
of  the  teacher,  and  the  general  condition  of  the  school 
are  inspected,  and  if  found  satisfactory,  a  diploma  is 
granted  designating  the  approved  school  as  a  "standard 
school."  If  the  conditions  are  found  to  be  exceptionally 
satisfactory  the  school  is  recognized  as  a  "superior 
school."  In  either  case  a  plate  granted  by  the  state  de- 
partment of  education  and  bearing  the  words  "standard 
school,"  or  "superior  school,"  as  the  case  may  be,  is 
placed  above  the  door  of  the  schoolhouse.  The  diploma 
and  plate  are  subject  to  recall  if  the  school  fails  to  main- 
tain this  standard. 

It  was  found  in  Illinois  that  not  more  than  one-fifth 

of  the  country  schools  when  first  inspected  were  up  to 

standard.     Four-fifths  of  them  were 

The  Illinois  plan       brought  up  to  standard  after  inspec- 


382  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tion,  by  the  suggestion  and  help  of  the  state  supervisor 
and  the  county  superintendent.  Once  the  patrons  came 
to  see  the  shortcomings  of  their  schools  and  the  means 
by  which  these  could  be  remedied,  they  stood  ready  both 
with  their  financial  support  and  their  personal  effort  to 
meet  the  conditions  necessary  to  give  their  children 
satisfactory  school  advantages. 

The  contagion  of  the  influence  of  good  rural  schools 
is  seen  from  the  fact  that  a  number  of  counties  in  Illi- 
nois now  have  half  of  their  schools  on  the  standard 
list,  and  it  is  predicted  by  the  state  superintendent  that 
in  a  few  years  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  rural  schools  of 
certain  counties  will  meet  the  requirements  of  "standard 
schools." 

The  requirements  for  classifying  a  school  in  this  honor 
list  are  not  above  what  can  be  attained  in  a  large  pro- 
Requirements  of  a  portion  of  the  counties  of  every  state, 
"standard"  school  and  surely  not  more  than  must  be 
demanded  if  rural  children  are  to  have  reasonable  oppor- 
tunities for  education.  In  order  to  be  classed  as  "stand- 
ard schools"  the  district  must  supply  ample  playgrounds 
with  a  well-graded  and  well-kept  approach  to  the  house. 
If  the  outdoor  closets  are  used,  there  must  be  two 
scrupulously  clean  and  well-kept  outhouses  widely  sepa- 
rated from  each  other.  A  convenient  fuel  house,  well 
placed  with  reference  to  the  school  building,  and  easily 
accessible,  must  be  supplied.  The  schoolhouse  itself  must 
be  well  built,  in  the  best  of  repair,  and  in  every  way 
suitable  for  occupancy.  The  foundation  must  bring  the 
building  well  above  the  ground  and  be  in  good  condition. 
The  schoolhouse  is  to  be  well  lighted  and  have  an  attrac- 
tive interior,  decorated  suitably  and  in  good  taste.  Ade- 
quate blackboards  of  good  material  must  be  supplied, 


THE    ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  383 

some  of  them  placed  low  enough  to  be  available  for  the 
use  of  the  smaller  children. 

One  of  three  types  of  heating  devices  must  be  installed : 
either  a  jacketed  stove  set  in  the  corner  of  the  room ;  or 
a  combined  heater  and  ventilator  placed  in  one  corner; 
or  a  basement  furnace  which  draws  clean  air  from  the 
outside  through  the  furnace,  and  removes  foul  air  from 
the  room.  The  floor  of  the  room  must  be  in  good  repair, 
and  the  entire  interior  of  the  building  kept  hygienically 
clean  and  tidy  at  all  times.  Desks  of  sizes  adapted  to  the 
different  ages  of  children  are  to  be  provided  and  prop- 
erly placed.  The  schoolroom  furniture  must  be  of  suit- 
able type,  including  a  good  teacher's  desk,  bookcase  and 
chairs.  The  library  must  contain  a  good  collection  of 
juvenile  books,  selected  with  reference  to  school  work 
as  well  as  for  general  reading.  There  must  be  organized 
and  kept  in  active  condition  a  pupils'  reading  circle. 
The  school  must  contain  a  good  set  of  maps,  a  good 
globe  and  dictionaries.  .It  is  required  that  the  water 
supply  for  the  school  shall  be  plentiful,  approximate  to 
the  building,  and  all  sanitary  conditions  surrounding  its 
use  fully  approved. 

The  school  is  to  be  well-organized,  the  records  kept 
in  businesslike  manner  and  a  definite  program  of  study 
Standards  in  ^^^  recitation  followed.    The  school 

the  school  attendance     must     show     reasonable 

regularity  and  the  school  year  be  at  least  seven  months  in 
length.  The  discipline  and  management  of  the  school 
must  be  good.  The  teacher  is  required  to  have  the  equiva- 
lent of  at  least  a  high-school  education  and  to  receive 
an  annual  minimum  salary  of  not  less  than  three  hundred 
and  sixty  dollars.  The  teacher  must  also  be  approved 
by  the   county   superintendent   as  a  good  or  superior 


384  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

teacher,  and  must  read  the  professional  books  provided 
in  the  reading  circle,  besides  attending  teachers'  insti- 
tutes and  other  educational  meetings. 

It  has  been  found  that  many  schools,  having  reached 
the  grade  of  "standard  schools"  and  found  the  advan- 
Standards  for  tages  that  flow   from  this   improved 

"superior"  schools  type  of  school,  desire  to  go  on 
and  attain  the  rank  of  a  "superior  school."  This 
is  possible  by  meeting  certain  additional  requirements. 
In  order  to  be  classified  as  a  "superior  school"  the  school 
grounds  must  have  an  area  of  at  least  one-half  acre, 
be  level,  covered  with  good  sod  and  kept  in  perfect 
condition.  The  yard  must  contain  a  reasonable  number 
of  trees  and  shrubs.  There  must  be  an  approved  well 
or  cistern,  and  sanitary  drinking  appliances  provided. 
All  outbuildings  must  be  of  the  best  and  most  approved 
typje  and  kept  in  perfect  condition. 

In  the  superior  school  the  building  must  be  of  ample 

size,    attractive   in    appearance,    in   perfect    repair,   and 

must    provide    separate    cloak-rooms 

The  building  ^^^  ^^yg  ^^j  gjj.jg^  ^j^g  interior  walls 

must  be   properly  tinted   and   kept   scrupulously  clean. 

The  lighting  must  come  from  one  side,  or  from  one  side 

and  the  rear.     The  windows  must  be  capable  of  being 

easily  opened  and  shut  and  fitted  with  good  shades.   The 

floor  must  be  laid  with  close-fitting  lumber  and  kept  in 

hygienic  condition. 

The  ordinary  heating  stove  will  not  be  tolerated  in  a 

superior  school,  the  heating  requirement  being  either  a 

basement    or    room    furnace    which 
School  equipment      ^^.^^^   .^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^.^   ^^^^  ^^^^j^^ 

and  removes  the  foul  air  by  an  adequate  ventilating  de- 
vice.    Blackboards  must  be  fully  adequate  and  adapted 


THE    ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  385 

to  the  different  sizes  of  pupils.  The  desks  and  all  school 
furniture  must  be  of  high  grade  and  fully  adequate  in 
amount  for  the  needs  of  the  school.  The  school  must  be 
supplied  with  a  library  of  at  least  eighty  books,  a  good 
cyclopedia,  three  dictionaries,  writing  and  examination 
supplies,  pictures  for  the  walls,  maps,  globes,  a  set  of 
measures  and  scales,  a  thermometer  and  a  complete  set 
of  text-books  for  the  teacher's  use.  All  necessary  equip- 
ment for  the  care  of  the  room,  including  a  floor  brush 
and  sweeping  preparations,  are  to  be  provided.  The  per- 
sonal comfort  and  cleanliness  of  the  pupils  are  insured 
by  requiring  a  wash  basin,  mirror,  paper  towels  and 
other  sanitary  supplies  as  a  part  of  the  equipment. 

The  superior  school  must  provide  for  the  teaching  of 
the  elements  of  agriculture,  manual  training  and  the  do- 
mestic   arts.      The    teacher    is    not 
The  curriculum  1      j.      t,  i.-  u      1       1  j     ^ 

only   to   be   a   high-school   graduate, 

but  must  have  had  training  in  a  normal  school.  He 
must  hold  at  least  a  first-grade  certificate  and  be  paid 
a  salary  of  not  less  than  four  hundred  and  eighty  dollars 
a  year.  He  must  also  be  ranked  as  a  superior  teacher 
by  the  county  superintendent. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  demand  for  better  schools 

wherever  "standard"  or  "superior"  schools  have  been 

established,  whether  these  terms  are 

Hopeful  tendencies    ^^^^j^^   ^^   ^^^^   indicates    a  hopeful 

tendency  of  the  times.  Where  one  of  these  model  schools 
is  once  located  in  a  township,  it  has  usually  resulted  in 
the  establishment  of  others  within  a  short  time. 

One  of  the  strongest  factors  in  compelling  improve- 
ment is  the  recent  tendency  to  require  the  teaching  of 
Factors  influencing  agriculture  in  all  rural  schools.  More 
progress  than  a  dozen  states  have  in  recent 


386  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

years  passed  laws  making  agriculture,  and  in  some  cases 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  as  well,  a  part  of 
the  school  course.  The  movement  is  still  spreading,  and 
it  is  safe  to  predict  that  within  a  decade  very  few  rural 
schools  can  be  found  where  instruction  in  these  practi- 
cal subjects  is  not  a  regular  part  of  the  school  work. 
These  educational  requirements  must  from  the  very  na- 
ture of  the  case  result  in  better  buildings  and  equipment. 
For  it  is  impossible  to  teach  agriculture,  domestic  science 
and  manual  training  without  equipment  and  room  for  the 
work,  and  these  are  not  available  in  the  old  type  of  school. 

The  effects  of  the  general  spirit  of  progress  in  rural 
education  are  seen  in  the  marked  improvement  in  the 
Improvement  in  school  buildings  now  being  erected 
schoolhouses  in  most  parts  of  the  country.  Grad- 

ually spreading  over  North,  South,  East  and  West, 
is  to  be  found  here  and  there  a  new  type  of 
schoolhouse,  not  in  the  least  resembling  the  pitiful  lit- 
tle structure  it  displaces.  Many  of  these  new  schools  are 
a  delight  to  the  eye.  They  are  fitted  with  modern  con- 
veniences, and  fully  adapted  to  the  work  of  the  reorgan- 
ized rural  school.  Architects  are  becoming  interested  in 
the  problem  of  the  district  schoolhouse,  and  are  giving 
their  best  ingenuity  to  devise  moderate-priced  buildings 
which  will  combine  the  maximum  of  hygienic  excellence 
and  service  for  school  purposes  with  pleasing  architectural 
effect. 

The  one-room  building  has  excellent  possibilities.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  buildings  shall  be  large  and  imposing 
in  order  to  be  beautiful  and  serviceable.  On  the  other 
hand,  not  a  few  of  our  largest  school  buildings  are  least 
pleasing  in  effect  and  ill  adapted  to  the  service  required 
of  them,  while  many  of  the  more  recent  one-room  build- 


THE    ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  387 

ings  are  almost  beyond  criticism,  both  in  appearance  and 
usefulness. 

The  one-room  school  can  be  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  district  nearly  as  well  as  the  consolidated 
Possibilities  of  the  building  to  its  demands,  if  the  same 
one-room  school  care  and  proportionate  expenditure 
are  devoted  to  it.  There  is  no  excuse  to-day  for  expend- 
ing public  funds  in  the  erection  of  rural  buildings  of  the 
old  type.  Where  this  is  done  there  is  either  ignorance 
or  a  low  standard  of  education  on  the  part  of  the  patrons 
and  taxpayers,  and  carelessness  or  betrayal  of  duty  on 
the  part  of  the  officials  supposed  to  supervise  the  erec- 
tion of  school  buildings. 

Certain  well-established  principles  are  now  fully  un- 
derstood with  reference  to  the  construction  of  school 
Requirements  of  buildings,  and  should  be  applied  both 
buildings  in  the  erection  of  new  buildings  and 

the  reconstruction  of  old  ones.  The  lighting  should 
come  from  one  side  only,  and  not  from  two,  three  or  four 
directions  as  in  many  of  the  old  buildings.  It  is  prefer- 
able that  the  light  should  come  from  the  north,  but  where 
this  is  impossible,  suitable  shades  must  be  provided  to 
keep  all  direct  sunlight  from  striking  on  the  desks  or 
any  portion  of  the  school  work.  The  window  space 
should  be  at  least  one-fifth  as  great  as  the  floor  space. 
Less  than  this  will  provide  too  small  an  amount  of  light 
on  dark  and  cloudy  days. 

The  floor  should  always  be  of  hard  wood,  either  maple 

or  oak,  close-laid  to  avoid  cracks  for  the  lodgment  of 

dust.       The     custom     of     flooring 

school  buildings  with  cheap  pine  of 

five-inch    width    is    wasteful    extravagance    instead    of 

economy.     For  it  is  sure  to  shrink  so  as  to  leave  great 


388  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

cracks,  and  often  slivers  or  curls  at  the  edges,  making- 
the  floor  irregular  and  leaving  lurking  places  for  filth  and 
dirt.  The  hardwood  floor  cleans  more  easily,  lasts  longer 
and  is  so  far  ahead  in  hygienic  qualities  that  the  slightly 
higher  first-cost  is  not  to  be  considered. 

The  day  of  the  old  plaster  or  wooden  blackboard  is 
gone.  There  are  now  many  devices  far  ahead  of  either, 
and  costing  little  or  no  more  than  the 
old  type  of  board.  The  most  economi- 
cal board  to  buy  is,  however,  the  slate  slabs,  which  are 
practically  indestructible,  and  which  never  get  out  of 
repair  or  show  shiny  spots  where  the  writing  can  not  be 
read.  Old  buildings  with  boards  out  of  repair  should 
be  supplied  with  the  slate  board,  since  it  is  easily  in- 
stalled in  the  old  building,  and  can  be  transferred  to  the 
new  building  when  the  old  is  replaced. 

The  seats  and  desks  should  be  of  the  most  thoroughly 
approved  type.  One  hundred  years  ago  the  educational 
authorities  were  seriously  debating 
School  furniture  ^^gther  a  child  should  have  any  sup- 
port for  the  back  while  sitting  in  school.  We  have  passed 
beyond  this  stage,  but  we  still  often  supply  seats  that  do 
not  fit  the  child,  and  which  therefore  render  him  un- 
comfortable and  interfere  with  his  health  and  develop- 
ment. In  every  school  a  reasonable  proportion  of  the 
desks  should  be  adjustable,  so  that  they  may  be  adapted  td 
children  either  larger  or  smaller  than  the  average.  It  is 
little  less  than  criminal  to  sentence  a  child  to  sit  in  a 
seat  from  which  his  feet  will  not  touch  the  floor,  or  on 
the  other  hand  to  crowd  him  into  one  so  small  that  it 
does  not  allow  him  to  sit  in  a  normal  position. 

Every  one-room  schoolhouse  should  have  a  good  base- 


THE   ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  389 

ment,  well-drained,  supplied  with  plenty  of  light,  floored 
with  cement,  and  kept  as  clean  and  dry  as  the  room  above 
Schoolroom  ^^'      ^^   ^^^^   basement   should  be    in- 

heating  stalled  a  furnace   for  the  heating  of 

the  building.  In  connection  with  the  heating  system 
should  be  a  system  of  ventilation  sufficient  for  constantly 
supplying  the  schoolroom  with  an  abundance  of  air  drawn 
from  the  outside,  and  heated  during  its  passage  through 
the  furnace  pipes.  Direct  radiation  from  a  stove  set  in 
the  schoolroom  should  no  longer  be  permitted  in  any 
school.  In  spite  of  the  various  methods  of  jacketing 
the  stoves,  they  are  unhygienic,  ugly  and  expensive. 
They  take  up  room  needed  for  better  purposes,  and  the 
best  of  them  have  a  tendency  to  freeze  those  in  the  far 
corners  of  the  room  while  they  roast  those  near  by.  A 
recent  test  taken  with  a  thermometer  in  a  stove-heated 
room  on  a  cold  day  showed  a  temperature  of  less  than 
fifty  at  the  seats  occupied  by  the  most  distant  pupils,  and 
of  eighty-five  at  the  seats  of  those  nearest  by.  No  wonder 
that  some  of  the  pupils  were  drowsy  with  the  languor  of 
heat,  while  others  were  distracted  from  their  work  by  the 
discomfort  of  the  cold. 

The  basement  must  not  be  looked  on  as  an  extrava- 
gance. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of 
Need  of  a  economy  in  the  supplying  of  room, 

basement  For  in  the  basement  can  be  stored  the 

fuel,  which  now  so  commonly  occupies  an  ugly  shed 
adjacent  to  the  schoolhouse.  This  shed  costs  almost  as 
much  as  the  basement,  and  will  constantly  deteriorate, 
while  the  basement  will  not.  Further,  with  the  addition 
of  manual  training  to  the  rural-school  course,  there  must 
be  some  place  provided  for  the  work.    What  more  natural 


390  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

place  than  the  basement?  Here  also  can  be  provided 
the  room  for  domestic  science,  now  coming  to  be  a  part 
of  the  curriculum  of  the  rural  schools  in  so  many  states. 

The  walls  of  the  schoolroom  should  be  as  well  finished 
as  those  of  our  best  homes.  They  should  be  tinted  a 
Decorating  the  subdued     but     pleasing     color,     and 

schoolroom  treated  with   an   oil  paint   devoid  of 

gloss,  washable  without  injuring  the  effect  of  the  decora- 
tion. In  old  buildings  in  which  the  interiors  are  dingy 
and  forbidding,  the  freshening  process  should  be  thor- 
oughly carried  out,  and  the  room  made  as  pleasant  and 
home-like  as  possible.  This  can  be  done  at  slight  ex- 
pense; that  it  is  not  more  often  done  is  largely  because 
'of  the  indifference  of  those  having  such  matters  in  charge, 
rather  than  from  motives  of  economy.  The  schoolroom 
should  be  supplied  with  a  few  good  pictures  suited  to  the 
age  of  the  pupils.  These  should  be  worthy  copies  of  the 
great  masterpieces,  and  they  should  be  well  framed,  and 
suitably  hung.  The  custom  of  decorating  the  walls  of  the 
schoolroom  with  cheap  posters  and  pages  from  the  ad- 
vertising sections  of  magazines,  however  well  meant, 
should  be  severely  condemned.  There  is  a  great  inspira- 
tion in  having  constantly  before  one  the  suggestion  com- 
ing from  a  fine  picture ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  gaudy 
worthless  daubs  so  often  seen  in  schoolrooms  are  of  no 
help,  and  even  serve  to  lower  the  tastes  and  standards. 
Excellent  pictures  of  historic  places  and  events ;  of 
famous  men — Washington,  Jefferson,  Longfellow,  Lin- 
coln— can  be  had  for  small  sums. 

The  furniture  of  the  school  should  be  of  a  good  sub- 
stantial type,  adapted  to  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put. 
Care  of  school  -^^^  *^^*  ^^  broken  or  marred  should 

belongings  be  mended  or  replaced.    The  lessons 


THE   ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  391 

that  sink  into  the  mind  of  a  child  from  seeing  broken 
and  scarred  furnishings  in  the  schoolroom  unconsciously 
come  to  shape  his  standards  for  the  furnishings  of  the 
home.  The  furnishings  of  the  school  require  the  best  of 
care,  and  should  at  least  once  each  year  be  subjected  to  a 
thorough  cleaning  and  freshening  process,  with  a  free 
use  of  varnish  or  other  means  of  making  them  new  and 
attractive  in  appearance.  This  should  be  done  in  a  work- 
manlike manner,  and  may  well  be  a  part  of  the  course 
in  manual  training  for  the  boys  of  the  school. 

Every  rural  school  should  have  a  library  adequate  to 
the  uses  of  the  school.     One  of  the  greatest  gifts  that 

an  education  can  put  into  the  posses- 

The  school  library  r  ^t.       1  u   •         1  e  j 

sion  of  the  child  is  a  love  for  good 

reading,  and  this  can  not  be  obtained  without  the  right 
kind  of  reading  material  with  which  to  develop  the  taste. 
Yet  there  are  hundreds  of  district  schools  scattered 
throughout  the  country  in  which  not  a  book  is  to  be 
found  except  the  text-books  in  the  pupils'  desks.  This 
is  a  fatal  weakness  in  the  equipment  of  any  school,  and 
one  that  teachers  and  officers  should  set  about  to  remedy 
at  once.  A  minimum  of  one  hundred  good  books  care- 
fully selected  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pupils  should  be 
the  lowest  number  thought  of  as  meeting  the  requirements 
of  even  a  small  school;  nor  should  this  number  include 
the  sets  of  supplementary  readers,  which  are  a  necessary 
part  of  the  equipment  of  every  school.  And,  even  with 
this  foundation  as  a  beginning  of  a  school  and  neighbor- 
hood library,  an  annual  appropriation  out  of  the  funds 
of  the  district  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars,  and 
as  much  more  as  the  finances  of  the  district  will  bear, 
should  be  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  new  books  and 
magazines.    One  of  the  poorest  places  to  practise  a  fool- 


392  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

ish  economy  is  in  the  school  library.  That  books  are 
sometimes  lost  or  destroyed,  is  true ;  but  this  is  no  argu- 
ment against  supplying  a  library.  The  fault  is  rather 
one  of  management,  and  not  a  fault  that  necessarily  in- 
heres in  the  fact  of  supplying  a  school  library.  Let  the 
district  furnish  a  well-constructed  case,  fitted  with  good 
locks,  and  then  make  the  teacher  responsible  for  the 
safety  of  the  books.  The  loss  from  carelessness  or  ma- 
licious mischief  will  then  be  no  bar. 

The  sanitary  arrangements  of  the  one-room  school 
should  of  course  not  be  less  perfect  than  those  of  the  town 
Hygienic  °^  consolidated  school.    The  old  style 

conditions  of  water  pail  and  drinking  cup  should 

not  for  a  moment  be  tolerated  in  any  district  school.  In 
fact  no  system  by  which  common  drinking  cups  are  used 
can  longer  be  defended  or  condoned.  The  danger  to 
health  and  life  from  such  needless  exposure  is  now  per- 
fectly well  understood  by  all  intelligent  people,  and  there 
is  no  excuse  for  the  negligence,  well-nigh  criminal,  which 
in  many  districts  still  permits  this  menace  to  continue. 
It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  legislation  is  beginning  to 
forbid  the  water-pail  system  of  drinking  in  the  schools ; 
Indiana,  for  example,  having  replaced  pails  with  closed 
stone  jars  supplied  with  a  faucet.  A  still  better  device  is 
the  flowing  fountain  operated  by  compressed  air,  without 
the  necessity  of  connection  with  a  water-pressure  system. 
Every  dealer  can  direct  school  authorities  to  a  number  of 
satisfactory  devices  of  this  nature  and  the  cost  is  not 
great. 

A  still  better  plan  is  to  install  a  water-pressure  system 

consisting  of  a  three-hundred-gallon  tank  stored  in  the 

basement  and  supplied  by  means  of  a 

The  water  supply     ^^^^    force-pump    from    the    school 


THE   ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL 


393 


This  force  pump  now  makes  the  drinking  fountain  available  without  an 
expensive  plumbing  system.  The  children  can  easily  do  most  of  the  pump- 
ing. 


394  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

well.  This  system  makes  possible  indoor  toilets,  and 
flowing  water  for  a  lavatory  and  other  uses  in  the  build- 
ing. Such  a  water  system  costs  from  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  exclusive  of  the  well,  and 
should  be  made  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  every  modern 
rural  school. 

The  roller  towel  should  be  rigidly  banished  from  the 
school,  and  only  paper  towels  used.  The  expense  is 
Necessary  hardly  greater  than  with  the  old  sys- 

equipment  tem,  and  has  the  advantage  of  cleanli- 

ness and  freedom  from  the  danger  of  disease.  A  good- 
sized  mirror  should  be  provided,  and  every  incentive  used 
to  encourage  rural  children  to  take  pride  in  their  personal 
neatness  and  appearance.  The  common  comb  and  hair- 
brush should  be  tabooed,  and  the  children  led  to  provide 
their  own  combs.  If  such  features  as  these  seem  strange 
in  connection  with  a  one-room  country  school,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  small  matters  bearing  on  the  habits 
of  daily  life  are  often  the  most  important  part  of  educa- 
tion. 

Outside  closets,  where  such  must  be  maintained,  should 
be  entirely  separate  for  the  two  sexes  and  never,  as  is 
now  commonly  the  case,  built  under  the  one  roof  or  in 
close  proximity.  These  buildings  should  be  neat  and  in 
perfect  repair.  They  may  be  screened  by  clumps  of 
shrubbery  and  climbing  vines,  and  must  be  kept  scrupu- 
lously clean  and  free  from  every  suggestion  of  question- 
able nature.  Not  to  carry  out  this  simple  demand,  so 
reasonable  and  clear  in  its  necessity  that  none  can  ques- 
tion it,  is  to  confess  to  an  indifference  toward  childhood 
purity  and  morality  that  ill  matches  our  interest  in  other 
lines  of  educational  progress. 

The  surroundings  of  the  one-room  school  can  be  made 


THE   ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  395 

as  attractive  as  those  of  the  larger  school.  It  costs  but 
little  to  level  and  grade  the  grounds  where  a  farming 
Attractive  community  renders  the  use  of  teams, 

surroundings  plows  and  scrapers  available,  practi- 

cally without  expense  if  the  whole  neighborhood  is  inter- 
ested in  the  project.  Shrubs  can  usually  be  obtained  from 
the  oversupply  of  the  community,  or  they  will  cost  but  a 
few  dollars  if  purchased  from  a  nursery.  Trees  are  avail- 
able for  the  digging  in  almost  every  school  district,  or  can 
easily  be  found  along  adjacent  streams.  Nor  should  the 
setting  of  the  shrubs  and  trees  be  done  after  a  haphazard 
fashion,  but  according  to  an  artistic  plan  which  can  easily 
be  obtained  from  the  nearest  agricultural  college.  The 
actual  planting  should  not  be  left  to  the  exercises  of  an 
official  arbor  day,  nor  entrusted  to  children  who  do  not 
understand  the  setting  of  plants  and  trees.  That  the 
school  should  have  a  part  in  the  planting  is  true,  but  an 
expert  gardener  should  always  be  on  hand  to  oversee 
and  direct  the  work. 

The  spectacle  of  dead  trees  cumbering  the  grounds  of 
many  rural  schools  as  they  do  throughout  the  rural  corn- 
School  yard,  trees  munities  is  not  a  highly  inspiring 
and  shrubs  sight,  nor  does  it  encourage  children 

in  setting  and  caring  for  decorative  vegetation  at  home. 
With  the  trees  and  shrubbery  well  set,  the  next  problem 
is  to  insure  proper  care  and  protection  until  growth  is 
assured.  Mulching  should  be  applied,  and  stakes  driven 
to  protect  against  accidental  injury  from  the  pupils  in 
their  play.  If  the  season  is  dry,  water  should  be  freely 
applied  from  the  school  well.  Grass  and  weeds  must  be 
kept  down,  and  not  allowed  to  smother  the  shrubs.  The 
grounds  should  be  as  well  cared  for,  even  during  the 
vacation,  as  the  lawn  of  any  well-kept  home.     Though 


396  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

this  will  demand  some  trouble,  and  possibly  a  slight 
expense,  the  incentives  coming  from  beautiful  and  care- 
fully trimmed  school  grounds  will  far  more  than  com- 
pensate for  the  few  dollars  involved. 

The  school  garden  is  highly  desirable  In  connection 
with  the  one-room  school,  as  it  is  with  the  consolidated 

school.  It  is,  however,  a  hard  prob- 
School  gardens  ,        .  .       r  ^i 

lem  m  many  parts  of  the  country,  es- 
pecially in  the  North  where  the  planting  season  opens 
late,  and  the  schools  close  before  the  vegetation  matures. 
After  the  schools  are  out  the  garden  is  allowed  to  go  to 
waste,  and  the  best  results  are  lost.  Yet  many  schools 
have  succeeded  admirably  in  maintaining  excellent  gar- 
dens. At  least  the  school  can  encourage  the  planting  and 
care  of  home  gardens  under  the  instruction  of  the  teacher 
as  a  part  of  the  work  in  agriculture. 

The  district  school,  in  common  with  all  other  schools, 
must  give  more  attention  to  the  playground.     It  is  not 

enough  to  provide  a  sufficient  amount 
e  P  aygroun  ^^  ground,  and  do  nothing  more  for 

the  recreation  side  of  school  and  community  life.  There 
should  be  a  supply  of  simple  apparatus — various  forms 
of  swings,  teeter  boards,  a  sand  pile,  horizontal  bars  and 
other  devices  such  as  are  found  on  all  well-organized 
playgrounds.  These  can  be  had  at  a  nominal  cost,  and 
can  for  the  most  part  be  made  in  the  manual-training 
shop  of  the  school,  or  in  case  manual  training  is  not 
taught,  a  neighborhood  "bee"  devoted  to  the  construc- 
tion of  play  apparatus  would  easily  provide  all  that  is 
needed.  The  chief  reason  why  we  do  not  have  such 
equipment  in  more  of  our  schools  than  we  do  is  because 
the  need  of  it  has  never  been  realized.  This  fact  sug- 
gests an  opportunity  to  the  teacher. 


THE    ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  397 

The  one-room  school  can  be  of  great  service  to  its 
community  as  a  neighborhood  social  center.  The  school- 
The  school  as  house  should  be  the  common  meeting 

a  social  center  place  for  the  discussion  of  all  ques- 

tions of  interest  to  the  community ;  educational  programs, 
agricultural  meetings,  entertainments,  lectures  and  con- 
ferences of  various  sorts  all  naturally  belong  to  the  school 
center.  But  the  old  type  of  building  is  not  suited  to 
such  uses.  The  assembly  rooms  of  the  new  buildings 
we  are  erecting  should  have  this  function  of  the  school 
in  mind,  and  be  generous  in  size.  In  many  of  the  newer 
buildings,  the  seats  are  fastened  to  slats  instead  of  to  the 
floor,  and  can  be  pushed  aside,  or  to  the  walls  when  the 
room  is  needed  for  a  general  meeting.  Folding  chairs 
are  then  provided,  and  stored  in  the  basement  when  not 
in  use. 

If  it  is  said  that  the  standards  here  proposed  for  the 
one-room  school  are  far  in  advance  of  those  that  now 
„,         -  ,  prevail,    and   that   the   new   type   of 

both  reasonable  school  will  cost  the  district  more 
and  feasible  money  than  the  old,  this  will  all  be 

conceded.  But  so  does  the  farmer  spend  more  for  his 
machinery  than  he  did  a  generation  ago ;  his  automobile 
costs  more  than  he  paid  for  the  buggy  that  preceded  it ; 
and  he  spends  more  on  his  barns  than  he  was  formerly  ac- 
customed to  invest  in  his  straw  sheds.  Literally  thou- 
sands of  country  schoolhouses  are  to-day  in  use  that  cost 
less  than  four  hundred  dollars,  and  which  do  not  have  ten 
dollars  a  year  spent  on  their  up-keep.  The  modern  one- 
room  schoolhouse  should  not  cost  less  than  three  thou- 
sand dollars  without  the  equipment.  In  most  rural  com- 
munities this  type  of  building  could  be  had  without  hard- 
ship in  the  way  of  taxation, '  and  without  bringing  the 


398  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

school  tax  up  to  the  rate  usually  paid  in  towns  and  cities. 
It  is  not  poverty,  but  indifference  and  lack  of  informa- 
tion that  stand  in  the  way. 

That  the  better  type  of  one-room  school  is  entirely 
feasible  in  the  average  community  is  proved  by  the  ex- 
cellent schools  now  in  operation  here  and  there  in  many 
states. 


FOR  TEACHERS    DISCUSSION   AND  STUDY 

1.  Do  you  think  that  by  a  concerted  effort  on  the  part, 
of  all  the  teachers  and  the  superintendent  of  your  county 
many  one-room  schools  might  be  merged  in  consolidated 
schools?    Would  you  be  willing  to  help? 

2.  Have  your  district  schools  on  the  whole  been  show- 
ing any  marked  improvement  recently?  If  not,  how 
does  it  happen  that  they  have  not  caught  the  rising  spirit 
of  progress? 

3.  Do  you  know  of  any  particularly  good  district 
school  that  has  served  to  stimulate  other  schools  to  im- 
provement ? 

4.  How  do  you  account  for  the  rather  general  indif- 
ference to  education  in  country  districts?  Are  the  peo- 
ple not  fully  as  intelligent  naturally  as  those  in  towns? 

5.  What  do  you  think  of  the  Illinois  plan  of  recog- 
nizing "standard"  and  "superior"  schools?  Could  such 
a  plan  be  introduced  in  your  locality? 

6.  Even  without  official  action  recognizing  your 
school,  can  you  not  bring  your  school  up  to  the  require- 
ments specified?  Do  you  think  they  are  higher  than  all 
rural  schools  should  meet? 

7.  What  kind  of  pictures  have  you  in  your  school? 
How  are  the  walls  tinted?  Does  your  room  really  look 
pleasant  and  attractive? 


THE   ONE-ROOM    SCHOOL  399 

8.  Do  you  believe  there  is  a  moral  value  in  attrac- 
tive surroundings?  Do  you  believe  that  an  important 
part  of  education  is  to  develop  the  tastes  and  standards 
that  will  render  the  individual  dissatisfied  with  ugliness, 
squalor  and  dirt?  Are  your  school  surroundings  such 
as  to  develop  right  tastes  and  standards? 


CHAPTER  XXV 

SCHOOL    HYGIENE 

• 

Conservation  of  health  should  be  the  first  responsibil- 
ity of  the  school.  The  relation  of  a  sound  and  healthy 
body  to  success  and  happiness  is  so  vital  that  the  matter 
of  hygiene  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  prob- 
lems of  education.  The  child  goes  to  school  during  the 
period  of  life  most  formative  physically  as  well  as 
mentally.  The  effects  of  overstrained  eyes,  cramped  or 
unnatural  postures,  impure  air,  or  other  harmful  influ- 
ences are  therefore  far  more  serious  for  the  growing 
child  than  for  the  adult.  On  the  other  hand,  right  care 
and  use  of  the  body,  and  correct  habits  in  youth  will  yield 
large  returns  throughout  life. 

The  last  few  years  have  seen  an  unprecedented  inter- 
est in  hygiene  and  public  health.  Every  magazine  and 
New  interest  in  newspaper  presents  articles  on  the 
public  health  question ;    clubs     and     societies     are 

discussing  the  laws  of  health  in  their  meetings;  medi- 
cal societies  are  issuing  and  distributing  tracts ;  legis- 
latures are  seeking  to  incorporate  hygienic  meas- 
ures into  the  management  of  our  schools.  Nor  is 
this  all  a  fad,  the  whim  of  a  passing  moment,  to  be  for- 
gotten when  a  more  interesting  topic  arises.  As  a  peo- 
ple we  are  awakening  to  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  to 
live  longer,  more  happily  and  more  successfully  by  obey- 
ing certain  simple  and  easily  understood  laws  governing 

400 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  401 

rhe  functioning  of  our  bodies.  We  are  discovering  that 
we  can  save  much  economic  loss,  sickness,  sorrow  and 
premature  death  by  a  little  care  and  foresight  with  ref- 
erence to  our  health.  And  nothing  can  be  more  import- 
ant than  this. 

Recognition  of  the  importance  of  physical  health  in  any 
scheme  of  education  led  the  city  of  Boston  in  the  year 
Medical  inspection  1894  to  provide  for  the  medical  in- 
of  schools  spection  of  all  school  children.    This 

seems  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  the  movement  in  this 
country.  Medical  inspection  has  now  spread  until  it  ob- 
tains in  most  of  the  important  cities  of  the  United  States. 
A  number  of  different  states  have  also  passed  medical 
inspection  laws  applying  to  all  schools,  both  urban  and 
rural.  Still  other  states  have  laws  providing  for  the  test- 
ing of  the  eyes  and  ears  of  all  school  children.  In  many 
places  the  teachers  are  required  to  have  a  knowledge  of 
the  eye  and  the  ear,  and  of  contagious  diseases.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  our  future  educational  policy  will  in- 
clude responsibility  for  the  health  and  physical  well- 
being  of  the  child  while  he  is  in  school,  and  such  train- 
ing in  hygiene  that  he  will  be  able  to  maintain  a  higher 
standard  of  physical  eMciency  outside  the  school  than  is 
now  the  rule. 

It  is  especially  necessary  that  the  rural  school  shall  set 
high  its  standard  of  hygiene.  For  the  rural  community 
Rural  school  to  set  is  lacking  in  boards  of  health,  and  the 
health  standard  proximity  to  doctors,  dentists  and 
oculists  that  characterize  the  city.  Violations  of  the 
rules  of  public  health  in  rural  neighborhoods  may  result 
in  an  outbreak  of  disease  before  the  offenders  are  discov- 
ered and  checked.  Slight  ailments  are  not  likely  to  re- 
ceive medical  attention  until  they  have  become  serious. 


402  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Decayed  teeth  and  diseased  throats  are  not  subjected  to 
early  treatment.  Defective  hearing  and  vision  do  not  re- 
ceive attention  from  the  speciahst,  for  none  is  at  hand. 
The  new  movement  for  better  hygiene  has  not  yet  reached 
the  country  as  fully  as  it  has  the  city. 

One  of  the  greatest  opportunities  of  the  rural  school  is 
to  hasten  this  movement.  The  rural  record  for  disease 
Low  hygienic  ^"^  ^^^^  °^  mortality  is  out  of  all  pro- 

standards  portion  to  sickness  and  death  in  the 

city,  when  we  take  into  account  the  more  favorable 
natural  conditions  of  country  life.  The  dreadful  toll 
taken  by  the  contagious  diseases  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to  in  an  earlier  chapter.  Doctor  Hoag  found  in  a 
recent  study  of  the  health  conditions  in  the  Minnesota 
rural  schools  that  fully  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  children 
yet  in  the  elementary  school  regularly  drink  coffee.  Two 
out  of  every  five  suffer  almost  constantly  from  toothache, 
accepting  it  as  inevitable  and  hence  to  be  endured  instead 
of  cured.  More  than  one-fifth  of  the  pupils  have  fre- 
quent headaches,  naively  taking  them  for  granted  on  the 
supposition  that  "everybody  has  headaches."  From 
twelve  to  fourteen  per  cent,  suffer  from  earache,  and  four 
per  cent,  have  discharging  ears,  adenoids  being  responsi- 
ble for  most  of  this  trouble,  which  usually  ends  in  some 
form  of  deafness.  From  four  to  five  per  cent,  of  the 
children  are  sufficiently  hard  of  hearing  that  they  do  not 
fully  understand  what  is  going  on,  and  hence  are  put 
down  as  stupid  when  they  are  not. 

The  rural  school  therefore  owes  it  to  its  pupils  and 
patrons  to  do  two  things:  (i)  to  make  the  hygienic 
Duty  of  school  conditions   in  the   school   itself   such 

toward  health  that  no  harm  can  come  to  the  health 

or  physical  well-being  of  the  pupils,  seeking  rather  to 


SCHOOL    HYGIENE  403 

remedy  such  physical  defects  as  are  present ;  and  (2)  so 
to  instruct  in  the  laws  of  hygiene  that  the  physical  habits 
and  standards  outside  the  school  may  result  in  the  high- 
est efficiency  at  home. 

Fundamental  to  all  other  questions  of  hygiene  is  an 
abundant  supply  of  pure  fresh  air  in  the  schoolroom. 
The  air  of  the  Rebreathed  air  is  harmful  in  two  dis- 

schoolroom  tinct  ways :  ( I )  the  supply  of  oxygen 

is  depleted,  and  all  the  vital  processes  of  the  body  run 
low  from  its  lack;  (2)  the  rebreathed  air  contains  many 
more  germs  than  pure  air,  and  many  of  these  are  harm- 
ful, even  when  they  do  not  produce  specific  diseases. 
Careful  tests  show  that  the  air  of  a  class-room  that  has 
been  occupied  by  a  class  for  an  hour  has  more  than 
double  the  number  of  germs  contained  by  the  air  in  the 
same  room  before  it  had  been  occupied. 

One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  the  effects  of  plenty 
of  oxygen  on  brain  power  and  general  physical  efficiency 
Effects  of  open-  ^^  ^^^"  ^"  ^^^  results  of  "open-air" 
air  schools  schools  developed  in  recent  years  in 

several  of  our  larger  cities,  and  still  more  common  in 
England  and  Germany.'  These  schools  were  started  first 
for  tubercular  children,  and  those  who  were  laggards  in 
their  classes,  and  unable  to  keep  up  with  their  work.  The 
open-air  schoolrooms  have  one  or  more  sides  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  in  some  instances,  especially  in  England,  the 
school  is  held  wholly  out-of-doors.  It  has  been  found 
in  practically  every  instance  in  such  schools  in  England, 
Germany  and  the  United  States  that  the  physical  health 
and  vitality  of  the  children  steadily  improved.  In  a 
large  proportion  of  the  cases,  the  disease  was  fully  cured, 
and  in  nearly  all,  the  weight  rapidly  increased.    In  every 

*  See  Ayres,  Open  Air  Schools. 


404  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

instance,  marked  improvement  has  also  been  shown  in 

mental  ability,  and  in  not  a  few  cases  the  laggards  have 

caught  up  with  their  regular  grades  and  gone  on  doing 

full  work.    If  plenty  of  fresh  air  will  work  such  wonders 

for  diseased  or  dull  children,  why  is  it  not  equally  good 

for  all  children ! 

The  recognition  of  the  importance  of  pure  air  in  the 

schoolroom  has  resulted  in  regulations  in  various  states 

that  the  schoolroom  must  contain  a 
Air  space  required  ...  .      .  . 

^  ^  certam  mmimum   of   air   space   for 

each  pupil  in  the  room.  For  example,  the  health  author- 
ities of  Indiana  close  all  schools  that  do  not  have  at  least 
two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each 
pupil.  The  board  is  then  obliged  to  enlarge  the  room  or 
make  some  provision  for  a  part  of  the  pupils  in  another 
school.  Some  such  provision  should  obtain  in  every 
state. 

But  even  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air 
to  each  person,  the  air  must  be  frequently  changed  in 
order  to  be  at  its  best.  Not  alone  pure  air,  but  a  moving 
current  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  entire  body  may  be 
bathed  in  changing  air.  For  recent  experiments  have 
conclusively  shown  that  the  effects  of  stagnant  air  on 
the  body  are  almost  if  not  quite  as  injurious  as  if  taken 
into  the  lungs.  Every  schoolroom  should  therefore  be 
equipped  with  some  effective  ventilating  device  to  con- 
nect with  the  heating  apparatus.  But  even  with  the  best 
of  the  devices  available  for  the  small  school,  the  doors 
and  windows  should  be  thrown  open  for  at  least  five  min- 
utes at  each  intermission,  and  the  room  thoroughly  aired. 
Where  there  is  no  ventilating  device,  a  number  of  win- 
dows should  constantly  be  open. 

The  lack  of  pure  air  to  breathe  is  probably  the  worst 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  405 

hygienic  fault  both  in  our  homes  and  in  our  schools.  This 
is  all  the  more  to  be  deplored,  since  air  is  free,  and  can 
Ventilation  and  ^^  ^^^  ^"  abundance  at  the  expense 
disease  of  a  little  care.     Yet  in  how  many 

homes  and  schools  is  the  air  carefully  excluded,  especially 
during  the  winter  months !  No  wonder  that  we  reap  a  crop 
of  pneumonia,  bronchitis  and  colds  in  the  late  winter  and 
early  spring.  It  is  but  the  logical  outcome  of  lowered 
vitality,  and  the  presence  of  disease  germs  ready  to  take 
advantage  of  the  weakened  powers  of  resistance. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  taken  into  the  lungs  and 
immersing  the  body  is  almost  as  important  a  factor 
Effects  of  ^^  ^^^  purity.      Scientists  have  found 

temperature  by    careful    experiments    that    even 

air  which  has  been  rebreathed  until  it  contains  sev- 
eral hundred  per  cent,  more  carbon  dioxide  than  it  should 
contain  does  not  occasion  serious  suffering  or  immediate 
inconvenience,  providing  that  it  is  kept  cool  and  in  con- 
stant circulation. 

To  test  the  effects  of  ventilation  and  temperature  on 
the  body.  Doctor  Leonard  Hill  constructed  a  small  ex- 
perimental chamber,  making  it  air-tight,  and  providing 
it  with  a  window  through  which  he  could  observe  the 
occupants.  The  chamber  was  fitted  with  both  heating 
and  cooling  devices,  and  with  electric  fans.  Seven 
students  were  shut  in  this  chamber,  for  about  half  an 
hour,  thus  being  compelled  to  rebrcathe  the  air  many 
times  over.  They  were  kept  until  the  carbon  dioxide, 
which  should  constitute  less  than  five-hundredths  of  one 
per  cent,  of  the  air,  had  risen  to  four  per  cent,  and  the 
oxygen,  which  should  make  up  about  twenty  per  cent., 
had  fallen  to  sixteen  per  cent.    The  temperature  was  also 


4o6  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

increased  to  nearly  eighty-five  degrees.  The  students 
soon  experienced  great  discomfort  and  difficulty  in 
breathing;  their  faces  became  flushed  and  covered  with 
perspiration.  At  this  stage  the  electric  fans  were  set  in 
motion,  and  immediate  relief  was  experienced.  They 
were  still  breathing  the  same  old  stale  air,  but  when  it 
was  driven  by  the  fans  there  was  a  constant  change  from 
the  air  next  the  skin,  which  had  risen  to  about  ninety- 
eight  degrees,  to  the  cooler  air  of  the  chamber.  When 
the  temperature  of  the  air  was  reduced,  still  further  re- 
lief was  felt.  This  experiment  does  not  mean  that  there 
are  no  bad  effects  from  living  in  rebreathed  air ;  it  rather 
teaches  that  perfect  ventilation  can  not  be  had  without 
constant  currents  of  air  strong  enough  to  supply  chang- 
ing air  to  the  surface  of  the  body  as  well  as  to  the  lungs. 
It  also  suggests  the  necessity  of  guarding  against  the 
overheating  of  rooms. 

A  temperature  higher  than  seventy  degrees  has  a  tend- 
ency to  interfere  with  the  vital  processes  of  the  body,  and 
leave  the  mind  dull  and  inactive.  It  is  probable  that 
those  who  are  well  and  strong  can  easily  become  accus- 
tomed to  a  temperature  even  as  low  as  sixty  degrees,  and 
certainly  as  low  as  sixty-five  degrees,  and  be  all  the  better 
for  it.  One  can  form  the  habit  of  requiring  an  over- 
heated temperature  in  order  to  feel  comfortable,  or  of 
being  at  ease  in  a  relatively  low  temperature.  Every 
schoolroom  should  be  provided  with  a  thermometer,  and 
the  temperature  carefully  guarded.  A  schoolroom  siz- 
zling at  eighty  or  ninety  degrees  with  the  thermometer 
ten  below  zero  out-of-doors  is  a  positive  menace  to 
health,  if  not  even  to  the  life  of  pupils. 

Cleanliness  is  a  cardinal  virtue  in  the  school.    Filth  and 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  407 

dust  are  the  home  of  many  harmful  germs.  Therefore 
the  schoolroom,  the  furniture  and  the  books  should  be 
Hygiene  and  ^^P^  perfectly  clean.  Dust  should  not 

cleanliness  be  allowed  to  accumulate  on  the  floor, 

the  window  ledges,  or  about  the  desks.  Millions  of 
germs  slightly  heavier  than  the  air  in  which  they  float, 
settle  down  in  the  dust  and  when  it  is  later  disturbed, 
again  float  in  the  air,  adding  to  the  already  too-abundant 
supply.  In  many  schoolrooms  the  presence  of  dust  can 
be  detected  in  the  air  after  a  class  has  passed,  or  the 
school  has  marched  in  or  out.  This  condition  always 
means  carelessness  in  the  cleaning  of  the  room,  and 
brands  it  hygienically  unfit  for  use. 

The  remedy  is,  of  course,  to  remove  the  dust  daily — 

actually  to  remove  it  with  a  damp  cloth,  and  not  simply 

stir  it  up  in  the  room  by  swishing  it 

"^  *"^  off  the  desks  with  a  dry  cloth  or  a 

feather  duster  as  is  so  often  done.  Far  better  leave  the 
dust  quietly  reposing  on  the  furniture  than  to  drive  it  off 
into  the  air  to  be  breathed  by  the  pupils.  The  floor 
should  be  thoroughly  swept  every  evening  after  school, 
and  scrubbed  every  two  weeks  during  the  term.  The 
desks  should  be  revarnished  once  a  year,  and  should  be 
kept  clean  at  all  times.  In  short,  the  schoolroom  should 
receive  as  good  care  as  any  well-ordered  home.  It 
should  not  only  itself  be  a  healthful  place  in  which  to  live 
and  work,  but  should  stand  as  a  model  of  cleanliness  and 
good  housekeeping. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  hygiene  in  the 

rural  school  is  that  connected  with  the  water  supply.    In 

thousands  of  rural  schools  the  water 

^^  ^     has  to  be  carried  a  considerable  dis- 


408  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tance  in  pails  from  some  convenient  farmhouse.  Of 
course  with  this  scanty  supply  there  is  no  opportunity  to 
wash  hands  before  eating  the  noonday  lunch  or  after  a 
game.  There  is  barely  enough  for  drinking  purposes, 
and  the  supply  is  allowed  to  stand  all  day  in  an  open 
pail,  exposed  to  the  dust  and  dirt  of  the  room,  and  ab- 
sorbing the  poisons  of  the  air.  Both  pail  and  cup  are 
infrequently  washed,  and  become  coated  with  grime. 
The  cup  is  a  veritable  cemetery  of  cells  and  saliva  de- 
posits from  many  lips,  and  the  distributer  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  disease  germs. 

It  is  true  that  this  dangerous  and  filthy  method  of 
supplying  drinking  water  is  absolutely  forbidden  in  many 

places ;  it  should  be  tolerated  in  none. 
Drinking  utensils        .  ,     ,  .1.1 

A  covered  stone  or  metal  tank  sup- 
plied with  a  faucet  can  be  had  for  a  dollar  or  two,  and 
individual  drinking  cups  may  be  supplied  at  a  small  ex- 
pense. Even  this  equipment  will  not  keep  itself  clean, 
however,  but  will  need  constant  care  and  attention.  In 
fact  such  an  outfit  as  this  is  itself  but  a  makeshift,  and 
should  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  give  way  to  the 
flowing  drinking  fountain,  several  excellent  types  of 
which  are  intended  for  use  in  buildings  lacking  city  water 
connections.  No  common  drinking  arrangement  is  safe 
that  does  not  provide  some  means  for  drinking  from  a 
flowing  stream,  without  putting  the  mouth  to  metal  that 
other  lips  have  touched.  Any  lower  standard  than  this 
indicates  either  a  woeful  ignorance  of  the  simplest  laws  of 
hygiene,  or  an  inexcusable  indifference  in  the  exposure 
of  children  to  the  dangers  of  contagious  diseases. 

Attention  to  a  few  simple  rules  for  the  lighting  of  the 
schoolroom  and  the  protection  of  the  eyes  would  save  a 


Getting  a  drink.    The  method  that  prevails  in  three-fourths  of  the  district 
schools  in  the  United  States  to-day 


The  modern  way 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  409 

great  deal  of  defective  vision.  Medical  tests  of  the  eyes 
of  school  children  have  shown  an  appalling  proportion 
The  hygiene  of  pupils   with   faulty  vision.     And 

of  hghting  there  is  grave  reason  to  believe  that 

the  school  serves  on  the  whole  to  increase  these  defects 
instead  of  remedying  them.  Many  of  our  school  build- 
ings have  windows  on  three,  or  even  on  four,  sides.  In 
many  thousands  of  schools  the  windows,  even  on  the 
sides  exposed  to  the  sun,  are  not  provided  with  shades. 
And  even  where  shades  are  not  lacking,  they  are  not 
always  adjusted  so  that  the  direct  sunlight  is  shut  from 
the  desk  tops  or  from  the  books. 

The  newer  schoolhouses  are  being  planned  with  care- 
ful attention  to  lighting  effects.  In  the  older  buildings 
Attention  to  com-  ^he  teacher  should  devise  means  by 
monplace  things  which  the  eyes  of  pupils  may  be  pro- 
tected as  fully  as  possible.  The  absence  of  shades  usually 
indicates  carelessness  and  indifference  rather  than  stingi- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  district.  Blackboards  should 
never  be  used  at  such  an  angle  that  they  reflect  the  light 
into  the  eyes  of  the  pupils,  nor  when  they  have  become 
cracked  and  shiny  so  that  the  writing  is  not  plain.  These 
are  all  simple  and  commonplace  matters,  familiar  to  teach- 
ers and  school  officers,  yet  it  is  from  the  neglect  of  just 
these  hackneyed  points  that  many  of  the  physical  ills  that 
afflict  childhood,  and  much  of  the  mental  dulness  of  not 
a  few  of  the  laggards  in  our  rural  schools,  come.  There 
is  no  phase  of  rural  education  that  needs  attention  more 
than  the  hygiene  of  the  school. 

As  an  example  of  an  enlightened  attitude  toward  the 
hygiene  of  the  school,  the  following  regulations  recently 
adopted  by  the  Indiana  state  board  of  health,  and  having 
the  full  force  of  law  in  that  state,  are  given : 


410  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

Site  and  Grounds. — All  schoolhouse  sites  shall  be  easy 
of  approach  from  a  street  or  public  road.  A  slight  eleva- 
tion is  preferred  and  where  the  ground  is  low  it  must  be 
properly  drained  to  insure  proper  playgrounds  and  free- 
dom from  dampness.  The  site  shall  be  not  less  than  five 
hundred  feet  from  any  swampy  ground,  body  of  stag- 
nant water,  cemetery,  slaughter  house,  fertilizer  reduc- 
tion plant,  any  business  or  manufacturing  establishment 
which  engenders  noxious  odors  or  vapors  or  that  pollutes 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  by  smoke  or  dust,  or  any 
place  of  industry  where  undue  noises  prevail.  The  site 
shall  consist  of  not  less  than  one  acre.  School  play- 
grounds shall  have  an  area  of  not  less  than  thirty  square 
feet  for  each  pupil  and  shall  be  well  drained  and  graveled 
and  free  from  depressions.  Ground  not  occupied  by 
buildings  shall  be  laid  out  in  lawn  and  garden  with  shrubs 
and  shade  trees. 

School  Building. — No  school  building  shall  be  more 
than  two  stories  above  the  basement.  Doors  shall  open 
outward,  and  double  doors  or  storm  doors  shall  be  with- 
out fastenings  except  spring  hinges.  All  doors  shall  be 
unlocked  while  school  is  in  session.  No  class  room  shall 
exceed  twenty-four  feet  in  width,  ceiling  not  less  than 
twelve  nor  more  than  fourteen  feet  in  height.  Main  cor- 
ridors shall  be  not  less  than  eleven  feet  in  width,  and  in 
buildings  of  more  than  eight  rooms  not  less  than  thirteen 
feet  in  width.  All  floors  of  toilet  rooms,  basement  rooms 
not  used  for  class  purposes  and  all  inclosures  for  plumb- 
ing fixtures  and  steam  fittings  shall  be  of  nonabsorbent 
waterproof  material.  Wherever  possible,  floors  of  lab- 
oratories, domestic-science  rooms  and  corridors  shall  be 
of  like  material.  Mattings  or  other  floor  coverings  shall 
not  be  permitted,  except  in  superintendent's  or  principal's 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  411 

office,  rest  room  and  teachers'  rooms.  All  inside  wood 
finishing  shall  be  small  as  possible  and  free  from  un- 
necessary dust  catchers. 

Lighting. — No  window  shall  have  more  than  four 
lights,  and  the  tops  of  windows  shall  be  square.  Prism 
glass  shall  be  used  to  diffuse  light  when  necessary. 
Where  the  light  in  any  schoolroom  is  from  the  north,  the 
proportion  of  glass  to  floor  area  shall  be  not  less  than 
one  to  five. 

Heating  and  Ventilating. — Heating  and  ventilating  sys- 
tems shall  take  fresh  air  from  outside  the  school  build- 
ings, evenly  diffuse  the  same  throughout  each  schoolroom 
during  school  session  and  withdraw  foul  air  from  the 
room  at  a  minimum  rate  of  eighteen  hundred  cubic  feet 
an  hour  for  each  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  cubic  feet 
of  schoolroom  space,  regardless  of  outside  atmospheric 
conditions.  The  rules  provide  a  system  of  testing  the 
efficiency  of  ventilating  systems.  Trustees,  school  boards, 
board  of  school  commissioners,  county,  city  or  state  su- 
perintendents or  ten  or  more  patrons  of  a  school  may  re- 
quest the  board  to  make  such  tests. 

Stoves  and  Heaters. — ^Where  stoves  or  furnaces  are 
used  provision  is  made  for  fresh  air  to  be  taken  from  out- 
side the  building  and  the  installation  of  a  foul  air  flue. 
The  stove  or  furnace  shall  be  of  sufficient  size  to  heat  the 
room  to  seventy  degrees  in  zero  weather.  Provision  also 
is  made  for  safety  in  the  installation  of  the  furnace.  The 
jacket  shall  be  of  heavy  galvanized  iron,  black  iron  or 
other  equally  durable  material,  and  shall  be  lined  with 
asbestos.  The  rules  contain  a  table  showing  the  size  of 
chimneys,  diameter  of  vent  pipes,  the  free  area  of  foul  air 
vent,  area  of  free  air  intake,  area  of  smoke  flue,  etc. 
Where  ventilating  systems  are  used,  fresh  air  shall  be 


412  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

taken  from  outside  the  building  through  windows  into  a 
room  in  the  basement  constructed  for  that  purpose,  with 
tight  fitting  door,  and  impervious,  smooth  walls,  floor  and 
ceiling,  known  as  the  fresh  air  room.  No  basement  air 
shall  be  permitted  to  enter  the  air  supply.  No  fresh  air 
opening  or  foul  air  vent  in  connection  with  any  system 
of  ventilation  shall  be  closed  at  any  time  when  school  is 
in  session. 

Provision  is  made  for  the  location,  ventilation  and 
heating  of  cloak-rooms  and  wardrobes.  Where  cloak- 
rooms are  not  provided,  steel  lockers  may  be  placed  in 
corridors,  provided  they  do  not  become  obstructions. 

Windows  in  all  schoolrooms,  whenever  practical,  shall 
be  opened  at  recess  and  before  the  opening  of  afternoon 
school  sessions. 

Water  Supply. — Open  or  dug  wells  or  springs  shall  not 
be  used.  No  well  shall  be  within  one  hundred  feet  of 
any  privy,  cesspool  or  other  known  source  of  contamina- 
tion.   Tests  of  the  water  supply  are  provided  for. 

Sanitary  drinking  fountains  shall  be  installed. 

Lavatories. — Enameled  iron  sinks  or  wash  basins  shall 
be  installed.  Soap  and  sanitary  paper  towels  shall  be 
used.  Common  or  roller  towels  are  prohibited.  Sewer 
drainage  is  provided  for. 

Water  Closets. — Where  a  sewer  system  or  pressure 
water  supply  is  available  water  closets  to  the  number  of 
one  seat  for  each  fifteen  females  or  fractional  part 
thereof,  one  seat  for  each  twenty-five  males  or  fractional 
part  thereof  and  one  urinal  for  each  fifteen  males  shall 
be  installed.  All  such  equipment  shall  be  of  sanitary  con- 
struction. Ventilating  openings  are  provided  for.  Toi- 
lets shall  be  clearly  marked  "Boys'  Toilet"  and  "Girls* 
Toilet." 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  413 

Where  sewer  system  or  water  supply  is  not  available 
either  an  indoor  crematory,  sanitary  closet  system  or  out- 
door sanitary  closet  system  shall  be  provided.  So-called 
dry  closets  shall  not  hereafter  be  used.  All  outdoor  clos- 
ets shall  be  effectually  screened  and  protected  against 
flies. 

Seating. — Class  and  study  rooms  shall  have  aisles  on 
all  wall  sides.  Center  aisles  range  from  seventeen  to 
twenty  inches  in  width  and  wall  aisles  from  twenty-eight 
to  thirty-six  inches  in  width. 

General  provisions. — Furnace,  boiler  and  fuel  rooms 
shall  be  built  of  fireproof  construction.  No  closet  for 
storage  shall  be  placed  under  a  stairway.  All  doors  must 
be  unlockable  within.  Air  must  be  humidified  before 
entering  the  rooms.  Vacuum  cleaning  is  preferred.  Dry 
sweeping  or  dusting  is  prohibited,  and  there  shall  be  no 
sweeping  while  school  is  in  session. 


FOR  TEACHERS     DISCUSSION    AND   STUDY 

1.  Has  the  recent  general  interest  in  health  and  hy- 
giene reached  your  school  and  community? 

2.  Do  you  find  it  possible  to  ventilate  properly  your 
schoolroom?  Do  you  give  the  matter  careful  attention? 
Do  you  notice  dust  in  the  air  after  the  school  has  been 
marching  or  passing  about  the  room?  If  so,  what  does 
this  indicate? 

3.  What  are  the  conditions  about  your  school  that 
need  immediate  remedy  for  the  sake  of  the  health  of  the 
children  and  yourself? 

4.  Compute  the  space  in  your  room  and  see  whether 
there  is  as  much  as  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  to 
the  occupant.  Also  determine  whether  your  room  has 
window  space  equal  to  one-fifth  the  floor  space. 


414  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

5.  Do  you  allow  slates  to  be  used?  If  so,  how  are 
they  cleaned? 

6.  Has  your  school  a  good  well?  If  so,  has  it  a 
force  pump.  If  it  has  the  latter,  an  apparatus  can  easily 
be  installed  which  will  give  you  as  good  a  bubbling  foun- 
tain as  in  a  city  system.     Could  this  not  be  installed? 

7.  Is  the  dusting  of  your  schoolroom  properly  done, 
that  is,  is  the  dust  taken  up  by  dampened  dusting  cloths? 

8.  Are  the  desks  misfits  for  any  of  the  children,  so 
that  curvature  of  the  spine  is  likely  to  result?  Are  the 
seats  properly  placed  with  reference  to  the  desk  tops, 
so  that  they  do  not  require  the  pupil  to  sit  on  the  edge 
of  the  seat  or  lean  forward  in  order  to  reach  the  desk? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Although  the  hygiene  of  the  school  and  its  surround- 
ings may  be  made  perfect,'  this  is  not  enough.  For  hygi- 
Personal  nature  ^"^  must,  after  all,  finally  become  a 
of  hygiene  matter  of  personal  standards,  the  de- 

mand of  the  individual  for  the  conditions  that  favor 
health  and  longevity.  Not  until  each  pupil  not  only 
knows  the  laws  of  hygiene,  but  recognizes  and  desires 
their  benefits  in  his  own  life,  has  the  school  fully  accom- 
plished its  purpose  in  physical  education. 

In  spite  of  the  powerful  effects  of  good  examples, 
there  are  many  pupils  who  will  go  from  a  well-ventilated 
schoolroom  to  sleep  in  a  close  and  stuffy  bedroom,  or 
from  a  school  where  the  temperature  is  moderate  to  sit 
in  an  overheated  room,  without  thinking  of  its  ill  effects. 
Thousands  of  children  in  our  schools  learn  to  recite  les- 
sons on  the  care  of  the  teeth,  and  yet  never  form  the 
habit  of  the  daily  cleansing  of  the  mouth.  They  study 
the  effects  of  coffee  on  the  growing  organism,  and  yet 
freely  drink  it  at  their  meals.  They  are  fluent  in  de- 
scribing the  results  of  using  tobacco,  and  still  use  it. 
They  can  pass  perfect  examinations  on  the  rules  for 
Theory  versus  bathing,    but   violate   most    of    these 

practise  rules.     They  understand  the  danger 

of  the  common  drinking  cup  and  the  roller  towel,  but 
constantly  dare  the  risks.    They  are  aware  of  the  danger 

415 


4i6  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

of  overstraining  the  eyes,  yet  they  will  sit  facing  a  strong 
light  while  they  read. 

In  some  degree  this  discrepancy  between  theory  and 
practise  must  be  expected,  for  it  is  a  part  of  human  na- 
ture. None  of  us  lives  as  well  as  he  knows  how  to  live ; 
it  is  always  easier  to  preach  than  to  practise.  Yet  this 
does  not  affect  the  truth  of  the  principles  involved.  The 
school  must  not  only  teach  its  pupils  the  laws  of  hygiene, 
and  provide  hygienic  conditions  under  which  to  do  their 
work,  it  must  also  so  inculcate  these  lessons  that  they  are 
practised  in  the  daily  lives  of  its  youth. 

Children  should  never  be  so  taught  as  to  have  their 
minds  centered  on  sickness  and  disease,  or  their  fears  of 
Health  the  right  death  aroused;  many  nervous  and 
of  the  child  sensitive    children    suffer    from    the 

dread  of  these  things  as  it  is.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
child  should  be  led  to  expect  and  demand  health  and 
happiness.  The  pathetic  fatalism  that  makes  many  chil- 
dren accept  toothache,  earache,  headaches,  colds  and  the 
like  as  part  of  the  inescapable  woes  of  childhood,  should 
be  removed.  These  pains  should  be  understood  as  the 
penalty  for  the  violation  of  certain  physical  laws,  which 
it  is  a  part  of  their  education  to  discover  and  apply. 
They  should  come  to  demand  health,  instead  of  resign- 
edly accepting  suffering;  and  to  have  a  pride  in  physical 
vigor  and  well-being,  instead  of  in  fortitude  under  pain. 
They  should  come  to  look  on  premature  death  and  the 
ravages  of  contagious  diseases,  such  as  typhoid  fever  or 
tuberculosis,  not  as  the  visitation  of  an  inscrutable  Provi- 
dence, but  as  a  catastrophe  resulting  from  our  own  blind- 
ness or  unwillingness  to  follow  physical  laws  that  are 
perfectly  well  known.  Approached  from  this  point  of 
view  there  is  no  danger  of  making  a  child  morbid  by 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  417 

teaching  him  concerning  disease;  instruction  makes  for 
his  peace  of  mind  rather  by  showing  him  how  to  avoid 
sickness  and  gain  health. 

Training  in  hygiene  should  be  begun  before  the  habits 
of  the  child  are  fixed.  Ordinarily  nothing  short  of  a 
As  the  twig  complete  collapse  of  health  will  shake 

is  bent  an  adult  out  of  his  accustomed  habits 

of  eating,  sleeping  or  working.  Even  some  of  the  world's 
greatest  authorities  on  hygiene  daily  violate  the  rules 
they  lay  down^  for  others,  because  they  formed  their 
personal  habits  before  they  acquired  their  knowledge  of 
hygiene,  and  find  it  too  much  trouble  to  change.  But 
the  child  can  easily  be  led  to  form  correct  habits,  pro- 
viding the  models  and  incentives  are  effective.  Tooth- 
brush clubs,  fresh-air  societies,  coffee-prohibition  unions, 
and  other  organized  hygienic  efforts  can  be  made  a  great 
factor  in  fixing  habits  of  right  living  among  children. 

The  mouth  is  said  by  some  authorities  to  be  the  most 
neglected  and  ill-kept  organ  of  the  body.  Recent  in- 
Hygiene  of  vestigations  show  that  approximately 

the  mouth  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  children  in  our 

public  schools  have  diseased  teeth  or  defective  mouths. 
The  decay  of  the  teeth  is  one  of  the  most  prevalent 
diseases  known  to  modern  civilization ;  and  the  neglected 
mouth  is  a  most  fruitful  breeding-place  of  disease  germs, 
the  open  gateway  through  which  they  enter  the  system. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  uncleansed  mouths  and  de- 
cayed teeth  are  the  cause  of  more  diseases,  ill-health  and 
suffering,  especially  in  childhood,  than  all  the  other  or- 
gans put  together. 

The  poisons  coming  from  decaying  teeth  are  a  constant 
menace  to  the  health,  and  seriously  lower  the  vitality 
even  when  no  specific  disease  is  caused.    A  series  of  ex- 


4i8  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

periments  conducted  on  the  school  children  of  Cleveland 
showed  a  remarkable  increase  in  health,  strength  and 
working  efficiency  when  the  teeth  were  properly  cared 
for  and  the  mouths  were  kept  in  healthy  condition.  In 
one  group  of  these  children  who  were  suffering  from 
various  mouth  troubles,  a  series  of  tests  was  carried  out 
for  a  full  year.  As  a  result  their  working  efficiency  in 
school  averaged  an  increase  of  ninety-nine  and  eight- 
tenths  per  cent.^  Similar  reports  come  from  Boston,  and 
other  places  where  the  medical  inspection  of  school  chil- 
dren is  practised. 

These  facts  contain  a  double  suggestion  for  the  rural 
school-teacher.  First,  through  proper  care  of  the  teeth 
and  cleansing  of  the  mouth  daily,  much  of  the  decay  that 
attacks  children's  teeth  and  many  of  the  other  mouth 
difficulties  can  be  saved.  Further,  all  children  should 
have  their  mouths  inspected  by  competent  dentists  at 
least  twice  each  year,  and  the  tooth  cavities  filled.  Tooth- 
ache is  practically  unnecessary  in  childhood,  and  is  a  sure 
sign  of  conditions  that  need  immediate  attention,  not 
alone  to  avoid  suffering  but  to  protect  the  general  health 
as  well.  It  has  been  thought  by  many  that  the  teeth  of 
children,  being  only  temporary  at  best,  were  not  worthy 
of  serious  attention,  at  least  before  the  arrival  of  the 
second  set.  It  should  be  one  of  the  aims  of  the  teacher 
to  dispel  this  foolish  and  harmful  notion. 

A  very  common  defect  noticeable  in  children  is  what  is 

called  "mouth-breathing."     This  is  usually  caused  by  a 

.  bacterial  growth  in  the  back  part  of 

the  nasal  passages  known  as  adenoids. 

Adenoids  not  only  hinder  the  breathing  of  the  child,  but 

*  Report  of  W.  G.  Ebersole,  M.  D.,  before  the  Fifteenth  Inter- 
national Congress  on  Hygiene. 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  419 

sap  his  vitality  and  interfere  with  his  physical  develop- 
ment to  such  a  degree  that  the  average  size  of  children 
suffering  from  adenoids  is  considerably  under  that  of 
normal  children  of  the  same  age.  The  effect  of  adenoids 
on  mental  growth  and  ability  is  fully  as  marked,  and 
many  a  child  thought  to  be  backward  in  his  intelligence 
has  suddenly  shown  himself  to  be  normally  bright  when 
the  adenoids  were  removed.  Every  child  who  habitually 
breathes  through  his  mouth  has  some  defect  of  the  nasal 
passages  which  should  have  the  attention  of  a  physician. 
The  problem  is  not  alone  that  of  the  immediate  health 
and  development  of  the  child,  but  also  in  many  cases 
decides  whether  the  trouble  shall  become  permanent  and 
perhaps  result  in  deafness,  or  whether  it  shall  be  cured 
by  a  simple  operation  or  other  treatment. 

Enlarged  tonsils  constitute  another  serious  trouble  of 
childhood.     Few   children   escape   all   forms   of   throat 

troubles,  and  a  considerable  propor- 
Diseased  tonsils         ^.  1  •     ^  ^  •        j-rc     1 

tion  are  subject  to  recurrmg  difficul- 
ties growing  out  of  diseased  tonsils.  This  condition  is 
easily  detected  by  a  swollen  and  inflamed  appearance  at 
the  back  of  the  throat,  and  is  usually  accompanied  by  a 
tainted  breath.  The  tonsils  when  in  this  state  predispose 
to  several  serious  diseases.  They  offer  the  most  fruitful 
culture-ground  for  the  diphtheria  germ,  and  admit  the 
pneumonia  germ  into  the  system.  And  even  if  these 
more  serious  diseases  are  not  contracted,  inflamed  tonsils 
are  certain  to  result  in  recurrent  attacks  of  tonsilitis,  and 
other  forms  of  sore  throat.  Incalculable  damage  is  done 
to  the  health  and  development  of  children  by  the  neglect 
of  this  simple  matter,  which  can  usually  easily  be  rem- 
edied by  a  physician.     Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that 


420  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

every  child  with  diseased  tonsils  is  a  constant  source  of 
contagion  to  others. 

The  average  country  child  is  at  a  great  disadvantage 
in  the  matter  of  bathing.  The  bathroom  is  a  part  of  the 
Hygiene  of  regular  equipment  even  of  the  cheaper 

bathing  tenement  houses  of  the  cities,  while 

many  a  pretentious  farmhouse  located  on  a  quarter  sec- 
tion of  fine  land  is  innocent  of  all  arrangement  for  bath- 
ing except  such  as  is  afforded  by  the  family  wash  tub 
brought  into  the  kitchen  for  the  special  occasion.  It  is  not 
strange  under  such  conditions  that  the  bath  degenerates 
into  a  weekly  performance,  approached  without  enthusi- 
asm and  experienced  without  enjoyment.  Indeed  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  winter  bathing  is  almost  unknown  in  more  than 
one  rural  home,  and  that  many  children  come  to  look  upon 
the  bath  as  a  luxury  instead  of  a  necessity.  While  this  is 
one  of  the  most  delicate  problems  in  hygiene  which  the 
teacher  has  to  meet,  it  is  one  that  most  needs  to  be  coura- 
geously faced.  Let  the  children  once  get  their  standards 
fixed  at  the  frequent  bath,  let  them  come  to  realize  both 
its  necessity  and  its  pleasure,  and  much  will  have  been 
done  toward  adding  the  bathroom  to  the  rural  home. 
And  this  one  factor  alone  would  go  far  toward  bet- 
tering hygienic  conditions  surrounding  farm  life. 

The  hygiene  of  food  is  a  matter  that  the  pupils  can  not 
themselves  control  to  any  great  extent  in  the  home,  since 
the  standards  are  fixed  by  the  older 
Hygiene  of  food  j^g^^ers  of  the  family,  and  the  chil- 
dren are  expected  to  eat  what  is  placed  before  them.  The 
introduction  of  domestic  science  into  the  schools,  how- 
ever, and  the  new  emphasis  being  placed  on  the  teaching 
of  hygiene,  offer  hope  that  the  influence  may  extend  from 
the  school  to  the  home.    Children  should  be  taught  the 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  421 

harm  that  comes  from  a  too  constant  use  of  pork  as  a 
meat  diet,  and  should  be  led  to  discover  the  cause  of 
Tiany  of  their  headaches  in  the  overuse  of  the  frying-pan. 
Fresh  fruits  and  vegetables  are  a  luxury  on  many  farm 
tables,  though  they  are  absolutely  necessary  to  good 
nutrition.  With  an  abundant  supply  of  good  milk  avail- 
able on  the  farm,  most  farm  children  early  contract  the 
habit  of  drinking  both  coffee  and  tea.  Such  unhygienic 
habits  of  diet  as  these  are  largely  a  matter  of  ignorance  or 
carelessness.  There  is  no  thought  of  stinting  in  the  supply 
of  food,  and  most  families  believe  that  the  children  are 
well  fed.  What  is  needed  is  a  new  set  of  standards  of  what 
constitutes  suitable  food,  especially  for  growing  children. 
And  it  is  a  part  of  the  function  of  the  rural  school  to 
help,  through  the  teaching  of  personal  hygiene,  in  estab- 
lishing such  standards. 

Probably  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
children  attending  the  rural  schools  have  a  sufficient  de- 
fect in  vision  to  interfere  with  the 
best  success  in  study.  A  considerable 
number  of  these  have  forms  of  eye  trouble  that  will 
constantly  become  worse  if  not  treated  in  time.  Not 
infrequently  the  eye-strain  is  such  as  to  cause  nervous- 
ness, irritability  or  headaches  on  the  part  of  the  children. 
The  mother  of  such  a  child  recently  came  to  the  teacher 
and  complained  that  her  daughter  was  working  too  hard 
on  her  studies,  as  she  came  home  each  night  with  a  head- 
ache. The  teacher  had  a  suspicion  that  the  difficulty  was 
with  the  child's  eyes  instead  of  her  studies,  and  persuaded 
the  mother  to  take  her  to  an  oculist.  The  difficulty  was 
removed,  and  the  girl  not  only  lost  her  headaches,  but 
improved  in  her  studies. 

While  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  teacher  can  be 


422  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

trained  in  medicine,  or  know  how  to  apply  technical  tests 
to  the  eyes  or  ears,  this  is  not  necessary  in  order  to  detect 
signs  of  defects  of  these  organs.  Simple  tests  of  vision 
can  be  given  in  a  few  minutes  from  cards  that  can  be 
ordered  for  a  few  cents  from  any  oculist,  and  which 
should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment  for  teaching  hygiene  in 
every  school.  The  hearing  can  be  tested  by  the  ticking 
of  a  watch,  or  through  speaking  in  a  low  tone  some  dis- 
tance from  the  pupil,  and  asking  him  to  repeat  the  words 
pronounced. 

Physical  form  and  carriage  easily  result  from  the  pos- 
tures and  movements  habitual  to  youth.  Let  a  child  sit 
.  and  write  for  a  few  months  at  a  desk 

*  ^  ^  that  is  too  high  for  him,  and  curva- 

ture of  the  spine  follows.  Or  let  him  sit  awkwardly  "lop- 
sided" as  he  works,  and  the  result  is  the  same.  One  large 
school  for  girls  has  found  that  almost  forty  per  cent,  of 
the  girls  coming  from  the  public  schools  have  curvature 
of  the  spine.  School  postures  are  responsible  for  most 
of  this.  Leaning  forward  over  the  desk  while  studying 
contracts  the  lungs,  thus  decreasing  their  air  capacity,  be- 
sides giving  a  permanent  stoop  to  the  shoulders,  and  caus- 
ing unnecessary  strain  to  the  eyes.  A  careless  shambling 
gait  soon  becomes  habitual,  and  finally  characterizes  its 
possessor.  Lounging  as  one  sits,  crowds  the  organs  of 
the  body  and  indicates  both  physical  and  mental  indo- 
lence. 

Two  factors  enter  into  the  successful  teaching  of  per- 
sonal hygiene :  first,  the  children  must  be  taught  the  facts 
Making  instruc-  about  their  health  and  growth,  and 
tion  effective  the  laws  that  govern  them ;  but  next, 

and  not  less  important,  they  must  be  stimulated  to  apply 
these  laws  to  their  own  lives.    Any  well-informed  teacher 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  423 

can  teach  the  laws  of  hygiene,  but  it  is  the  teacher  of 
exceptional  power  and  influence  who  can  make  these  laws 
effective  in  the  lives  of  his  pupils. 

Perhaps  the  hygienic  habits  and  standards  of  the 
teacher  himself  are  the  most  important  influence  of  all  in 
The  teacher's  the  effective  teaching  of  hygiene  to 

health  children.     The  teacher  whose  entire 

personality  radiates  health  and  physical  well-being  has 
a  great  advantage  over  the  teacher  suffering  from  ill 
health  or  any  physical  defects.  Perfect  teeth,  well-kept 
hands  and  nails,  an  easy  poise,  grace  of  movement  and 
all  other  signs  of  care  and  attention  to  the  well-being 
of  the  body  are  a  constant  source  of  suggestion  to  the 
pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  decayed  or  uncleansed  teeth, 
untrimmed  nails,  stringy  hair,  or  other  evidences  of  care- 
lessness in  personal  hygiene  will  go  far  toward  nullify- 
ing the  most  expert  teaching. 

As  a  safeguard  to  their  own  health  teachers  need  to 
give  the  most  careful  attention  to  personal  hygiene. 
Teacher's  liability  Reliable  statistics  show  that  teachers 
to  disease  are    shorter-lived    than    workers    in 

other  occupations.  They  are  also  subject  to  various  ills 
induced  by  their  work  and  manner  of  life  which,  while 
they  may  not  shorten  life,  rob  it  of  much  of  its  joy  and 
satisfaction.  A  study  of  the  cases  of  illness  among 
eighteen  thousand  teachers  for  one  year  showed  them  to 
be  liable  especially  to  influenza,  nervous  complaint,  throat 
and  chest  difficulties,  intestinal  disorders  and  anemia. 
In  the  matter  of  tuberculosis  the  teacher  makes  an  ap- 
palling showing,  the  mortality  rate  being  approximately 
as  high  for  the  teaching  profession  as  for  the  notoriously 
unhealthful  occupations  of  stonecutter  or  saloon-keeper.^ 

*See  Terman,  The  Teacher's  Health,  page  two  hundred  and 
fifty-nine. 


424  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

At  its  best  the  work  of  teaching  is  highly  fatiguing.  A 
great  part  of  the  teacher's  work  must  be  done  standing, 
Conditions  of  thus  adding  physical  strain  to  long- 

physical  strain  continued     mental     exertion.       The 

teacher's  mind  must  be  keyed  to  a  high  pitch  for  hours 
at  a  time,  the  attention  finding  hardly  a  moment  for  re- 
laxation. The  actual  teaching  must  be  done  while  order 
is  maintained  in  the  class  and  in  the  school,  and  while 
the  responsibility  for  the  whole  organization  rests  on 
the  mind  of  the  teacher.  Both  mind  and  body  are  there- 
fore kept  at  high  tension  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
school-day.  Nor  does  the  teacher's  work  end  with  the 
closing  of  the  school.  Every  teacher,  especially  in  the 
rural  school  where  there  are  so  many  different  classes  to 
teach,  requires  at  least  half  as  much  time  to  read  written 
work  and  prepare  for  the  next  day's  lessons  as  is  devoted 
to  actual  teaching.  This  means,  therefore,  a  day  fully 
as  long  as  that  of  the  laborer,  and  at  an  occupation 
vastly  more  wearing  to  health  and  vitality. 

The  character  of  the  teacher's  work,  together  with 
the  nervous  strain,  results  in  an  excessive  eye-strain. 
The  teacher's  '^^^  proportion  of  teachers  suffering 

eye  defects  from  various  forms  of  trouble  affect- 

ing the  eye  is  from  this  cause  greater  than  the  average 
for  other  occupations.  In  Germany  thirty-five  per  cent, 
of  the  teachers  wear  glasses ;  the  percentage  is  somewhat 
less  in  this  country,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  differ- 
ence is  more  from  an  unwillingness  to  wear  glasses  than 
from  less  eye-trouble.  The  part  played  by  eye-strain  in 
producing  headaches,  nervousness,  insomnia  and  other 
disorders  is  too  well  known  to  require  comment. 

Not  a  small  part  of  the  danger  to  the  teacher's  health 
is  connected  with  the  matter  of  nutrition.     This  is  par- 


PERSONAL   HYGIENE  425 

ticularly  true  of  the  rural  teacher,  who  usually  does  not 
live  at  home,  but  boards  in  the  family  of  some  farmer 
Nutrition  and  the  of  the  district.  The  table  set  in  this 
teacher's  health  home  may  be  bountiful  and  well 
adapted  to  the  nourishment  of  those  engaged  in  hard 
physical  toil.  But  the  teacher  has  comparatively  little 
physical  exercise,  and  does  not  require  the  heavy  diet 
suitable  for  the  workers  on  the  farm.  The  appetite 
which  craves  fruit,  fresh  vegetables,  cereals  and  other 
lighter  foods,  rebels  at  the  abundance  of  meats,  gravies., 
fried  potatoes  and  rich  pastries  that  characterize  the 
farmer's  table.  And  the  teacher,  not  being  in  his  own 
home,  naturally  feels  it  impossible  to  get  food  different 
from  that  eaten  by  the  rest  of  the  family.  The  result 
is  often  indigestion,  malnutrition  and  a  general  condi- 
tion of  lowered  vitality,  if  not  physical  degeneration. 

In  view  of  these  conditions  the  teacher  owes  it  to  him- 
self and  his  school  to  provide  as  wide  a  margin  of  safety 
The  teacher's  ^^  possible   for  his  health.     He  can 

margin  of  safety  do  much  to  relieve  the  eye-strain  by 
consulting  oculists,  and  following  himself  the  rules  for 
the  hygiene  of  the  eye  which  he  teaches  his  pupils.  He 
can  provide  for  a  reasonable  amount  of  daily  exercise  in 
the  open  air,  preferably  in  the  form  of  games  that  will 
occupy  the  mind  as  well  as  the  body.  The  matter  of 
the  boarding-place  should  receive  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration. The  schoolroom  can  be  kept  well  ventilated, 
and  free  from  dust.  The  heat  of  the  room  can  be  regu- 
lated, and  an  open  basin  of  water  kept  on  the  stove  in 
winter  to  increase  the  humidity  of  the  air.  The  habit 
of  worry  over  school  problems  and  of  dwelling  on  the 
unpleasant  or  puzzling  matters  of  the  day  can  be  reso- 


426  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

lutely  abandoned,  and  in  its  place  the  tendency  to  happi- 
ness and  pleasant  moods  cultivated. 

And  the  school  as  well  as  the  teacher  will  profit  by  the 
teacher's  obedience  to  the  laws  of  hygiene.  For  it  is  the 
Health  and  teacher  whose  nerves  are  worn  and 

efficiency  whose    digestion    is    impaired,    who 

scolds  and  is  short  of  temper  and  cold  in  sympathy. 
But  the  teacher  who  is  the  embodiment  of  health,  and 
who  is  himself  the  best  proof  of  the  value  of  the  hygiene 
he  teaches,  is  a  constant  stimulus  to  right  living  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils. 


FOR   TEACHERS     DISCUSSION    AND   STUDY 

1.  What  laws  of  hygiene  are  most  habitually  violated 
by  your  pupils?  Can  you  make  your  teaching  so  ef- 
fective as  to  reach  these  bad  habits? 

2.  What  percentage  of  your  pupils  under  sixteen  years 
of  age  drink  coffee?  Smoke?  How  many  have  bad 
teeth?    Bad  tonsils?    Defective  hearing? 

3.  What  provision  do  you  make  in  your  school  for 
washing  the  hands?  What  kind  of  towels  do  you  use? 
Are  paper  towels  preferable  to  linen  for  school  use? 

4.  How  many  of  the  homes  of  your  pupils  are  pro- 
vided with  bathrooms  ?  Do  you  know  the  bathing  habits 
of  your  pupils?  Will  it  not  require  much  tact  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  to  discuss  hygienic  questions  effec- 
tively without  giving  offense? 

5.  How  many  of  your  children  actually  use  a  tooth- 
brush at  least  once  a  day?  Can  you  devise  any  methods 
to  lead  them  into  this  essential  habit  ? 

6.  Do  you  know  how  to  give  simple  tests  for  vision? 
For  hearing?    Have  you  given  any  such  tests? 


PERSONAL    HYGIENE  427 

7.  Have  you  felt  any  ill  effects  on  your  own  health 
from  teaching  ?  Do  you  worry  ?  Have  you  lost  or  gained 
in  weight?  Have  you  any  tendency  toward  tubercu- 
losis ? 

8.  How  far  do  you  think  the  standards  of  personal 
hygiene  you  set  are  followed  by  the  pupils?  Is  it  likely 
that  bad  habits  may  be  followed,  even  if  good  habits  are 
not? 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


THE  PLAYGROUND 


The  country  affords  the  natural  playground  for  child- 
hood. Here  there  is  plenty  of  room,  and  sunshine,  and 
Country  life  air,  and  freedom.     In  the  city  it  is 

and  play  ^q^  ^q^     The  buildings   take   up   all 

the  room;  there  is  often  no  place  worthy  the  name  for 
playgrounds, — the  occasional  vacant  lot,  the  prim  park, 
the  streets  full  of  traffic  and  presided  over  by  policemen, 
and  now  and  then  a  roof !  Tens  of  thousands  of  city 
children  have  no  place  to  play,  except  where  play  is  for- 
bidden. During  a  recent  month  there  were  some  five 
hundred  arrests  of  children  for  misdemeanors  on  the 
streets  of  New  York,  and  almost  half  of  these  arrests 
were  for  playing  ball !  Thus  play  becomes  a  crime,  be- 
cause there  is  no  room  for  it.  It  is  only  the  country 
that  is  not  crowded  for  space. 

One  would  expect  from  these  conditions  that  we 
should  find  the  country  children  the  best  players  in  the 
world,  adept  in  all  athletic  sports,  and  realizing  in  them 
an  important  factor  in  physical,  mental  and  moral  de- 
velopment. But  such  is  not  the  case.  Rural  children  in 
general  are  not  skilled  in  play,  for  they  do  not  have  the 
opportunity  to  learn  to  play.  True,  much  of  the  best 
play  does  not  need  to  be  learned  formally,  but  is  spon- 
taneously picked  up  through  imitation,  or  invented  on 
the  spur  of  the  moment.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  play 

428 


THE    PLAYGROUND  429 

activities  can  be  much  broadened  and  their  interest  in- 
creased by  guidance.  Play,  like  work,  needs  to  be 
learned  as  an  art.  Especially  is  this  true  of  games, 
which  are  but  organized  play. 

The  rural  child  is  ordinarily  greatly  limited  in  his 
range   of   games.     He   sees   but   few    different   games 

Rural  children  do  P^^^^^'  -^"^  ^^  .^^^^°^  ^^"^^^  "^^ 
not  know  how  games.     As  a  still  further  handicap, 

to  play  j^g  often  attends  school  where  there 

are  so  few  children  that  to  organize  games  successfully 
is  impossible.  The  result  is  that  many  rural  children 
do  not  utilize  even  the  little  time  they  have  for  play. 
They  may  often  be  seen  moping  around  the  schoolroom 
at  recesses,  when  they  should  be  out  on  the  playground. 
Or  they  gather  in  little  groups,  or  separate  off  in  pairs 
for  conversation  or  gossip.  Bickering,  quarreling,  tale- 
bearing and  fighting  are  much  more  common  than  in  the 
town  schools,  where  the  children  are  too  busy  in  play 
to  engage  in  these  things.  Under  such  conditions  the 
social  impulses  are  not  cultivated;  the  ideals  of  sports- 
manship are  lacking;  and  the  powers  of  initiative,  de- 
cision and  daring  required  in  games  are  not  developed. 

It  is  impossible  for  children  to  develop  normally  with- 
out play.  Indeed,  play  is  a  constant  factor  in  all  ranges 
of  animal  life.  Says  Karl  Groos:  "Perhaps  the  very 
existence  of  youth  is  due  in  part  to  the  necessity  for 
play;  the  animal  does  not  play  because  he  is  young, 
but  he  is  young  because  he  must  play."  Schiller  says, 
"When  hunger  no  longer  torments  the  lion,  and  no  beast 
of  prey  appears  for  him  to  fight,  then  his  unemployed 
powers  find  another  outlet.  He  fills  the  wilderness  with 
his  roars,  and  his  exuberant  strength  expends  itself  in 
aimless  activity" — he  engages  in  play.     So  if  we  watch 


430  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

the  swarming  insects  dancing  in  the  sunshine,  the  playful 
kitten  chasing  its  ball,  the  lambs  frisking  in  the  sunshine, 
we  see  the  same  impulse  at  work;  they  are  but  obeying 
the  common  impulse  to  play. 

A  recent  writer  says :  "Wherever  freedom  and  happi- 
ness reside,  there  play  is  found;  wherever  play  is  lack- 
Why  play  is  so  '^^S>  there  the  curse  has  fallen  and 
necessary  sadness  and  oppression  reign.  Play 
is  the  natural  role  in  the  paradise  of  youth;  it  is  child- 
hood's chief  occupation.  To  toil  without  play  places 
man  on  a  level  with  the  beasts  of  burden. 

"But  why  is  play  so  necessary?  Why  is  this  impulse 
so  deep-seated  in  our  natures?  Why  not  compel  our 
young  to  expend  their  boundless  energy  on  productive 
labor?  Why  all  this  waste?  Why  have  our  child-labor 
laws?  Why  not  shut  recesses  from  our  schools  and  so 
save  time  for  work  ?  Is  it  true  that  all  work  and  no  play 
makes  Jack  a  dull  boy?  Too  true.  For  proof  we  need 
but  to  gaze  at  the  dull  and  lifeless  faces  of  the  prema- 
turely old  children  as  they  pour  out  of  the  factories  where 
child  labor  is  employed.  We  need  but  follow  the  children 
who  have  had  a  playless  childhood,  into  a  narrow  and 
barren  manhood.  We  need  but  to  trace  back  the  his- 
tory of  the  dull  and  brutish  men  of  to-day  and  find  that 
they  were  the  playless  children  of  yesterday.  Play  is  as 
necessary  to  the  child  as  food,  as  vital  as  sunshine,  as 
indispensable  as  air."  ^ 

The  moral  value  of  play  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
City  playgrounds  have  been  found  to  transform  gangs 
Play  a  moral  ^^  hoodlums  into  well-behaved  base- 

safeguard  ball    teams,    and    prospective  crimi- 

*Betts,  The  Mind  and  Its  Education,  page  one  hundred  and 
seventy-seven. 


THE   PLAYGROUND  431 

nals  into  skilful  and  law-abiding  athletes.  Children 
who  are  engaged  in  active  play  not  only  find  an 
outlet  for  surplus  energy,  but  have  their  minds  safely 
employed  as  well.  There  is  a  stage  in  the  development 
of  youth  when  the  thoughts  need  to  be  occupied  with 
objective  interests,  and  not  allowed  to  rest  on  self. 
Loafing  and  dawdling  are  always  dangerous  occupations 
for  young  people,  and  especially  so  when  they  are  in  the 
company  of  others  of  the  same  age.  Many  immoral  and 
impure  suggestions  could  be  saved  the  minds  of  innocent 
childhood  in  our  rural  schools  if  provision  were  made 
to  utilize  all  the  recreation  time  in  healthful  play,  in- 
stead of  allowing  it  to  be  spent  in  mischievous  idleness. 

The  dearth  of  recreation  and  amusement  in  the  coun- 
try is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  causes  of  young  people 
Evils  resulting  deserting  the  farm  for  the  city.    For 

from  lack  of  play  youth  demands  its  playtime  as  natur- 
ally as  it  demands  its  food  and  sleep.  Let  rural  schools 
provide  as  fully  for  the  natural  play  activities  of  its  boys 
and  girls  as  is  coming  to  be  done  in  urban  schools,  and 
these  interests  will  prove  a  powerful  anchor  attaching  the 
youth  of  the  farm  to  rural  life. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  play,  just  as  they  should 
be  taught  to  study  or  to  work.  Instruction  should  be 
Children  should  be  given  in  the  activities  of  the  play- 
taught  to  play  ground,  as  well  as  in  the  activi- 
ties of  the  schoolroom.  Plays  and  games,  not  less 
than  mathematics  and  science,  should  form  a  part 
of  the  curriculum.  In  Germany  and  England,  the  play 
period  has  long  been  a  regular  part  of  the  curriculum. 
It  is  being  rapidly  introduced  in  many  of  the  more  pro- 
gressive of  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  United  States 


432  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

at  the  present  time,  and  is  nowhere  more  needed  than 
in  the  rural  school. 

The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  the  school  play- 
ground and  its  equipment.  For  the  introduction  of  play 
The  school  ^^  ^  P^^^  ^^  ^^^  system  of  education 

playground  carries  with  it  the  necessity  for  ade- 

quate grounds  and  material,  and  these  must  be  provided 
for  as  much  as  the  equipment  of  the  shop  or  the  labora- 
tory. It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  average  rural-school 
yard  is  not  calculated  for  a  playground.  It  contains  all 
the  way  from  a  few  square  rods  to  about  one  acre  of 
ground.  The  schoolhouse  is  usually  set  near  the  middle 
of  the  area,  with  the  coal  or  wood-shed  adjoining,  and 
two  outbuildings  at  the  rear.  Trees  are  often  located  in 
such  positions  as  to  interfere  with  the  use  for  play  of 
what  small  space  there  is  left.  The  grounds  are  seldom 
leveled,  or  the  grass  and  weeds  kept  down.  Of  appa- 
ratus for  the  playgrounds,  there  is  usually  none.  The 
sign  posted  on  the  side  of  an  Arkansas  school  building, 
"Fifty  dollars  fine  for  any  one  found  trespassing  on  these 
grounds  after  school  hours,"  represents  an  attitude  of 
mind  altogether  too  common  with  reference  to  the  use  of 
school  premises  as  playgrounds.  The  school  yard  has 
been  one  of  the  least  utilized  of  our  educational  re- 
sources. 

During  the  last  ten  years,  however,  a  great  play  move- 
ment has  arisen  and  is  spreading  rapidly  throughout  the 
country.  Cities  are  spending  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars  in  obtaining  room  for  their  children  to  play,  and 
in  supplying  equipment  for  grounds  already  provided. 
Even  in  towns  and  villages,  and  here  and  there  in  coun- 
try schools,  the  movement  has  taken  hold,  and  the  school 


THE   PLAYGROUND  433 

yards  are  being  utilized  as  playgrounds.  Equipment, 
often  rude  and  poorly  constructed,  but  nevertheless  far 
better  than  none,  is  being  installed.  Not  infrequently 
this  apparatus  is  purchased  through  the  enterprise  of 
the  school  itself,  or  built  by  the  members  of  the  school 
and  the  patrons. 

The  playground  movement  should  spread  until  it  in- 
cludes every  rural  school  in  the  land,  whether  this  school 
Grounds  necessary  be  the  old  type  of  district  school 
for  rural  schools  or  the  larger  consolidated  school. 
Such  a  project  successfully  carried  out,  will  re- 
quire larger  and  better  equipped  grounds  in  con- 
nection with  many  country  schoolhouses.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  set  any  arbitrary  standard  for  the  size  of  the  rural- 
school  ground  because  of  the  greatly  varying  sizes  of 
the  schools.  But  it  should  be  large  enough  to  lay  out 
a  baseball  diamond,  and  not  require  the  appropriation  of 
neighborhood  pastures  or  fields  as  is  so  often  the  case 
at  present.  Where  the  school  grounds  are  used  for  a 
neighborhood  park  and  picnic  place,  as  is  coming  to  be 
the  rule  in  many  places,  still  larger  grounds  should  be 
supplied.  The  minimum  size  for  the  average  rural-school 
ground  should  not  be  less  than  two  acres.  If  the  school 
is  a  consolidated  school  and  desires  to  have  neighbor- 
hood athletics  as  well  as  the  general  school  play  carried 
on,  then  the  grounds  should  be  correspondingly  larger. 

The  schoolhouse  should  not  be  set  in  the  center  of 
the  grounds  as  is  so  often  done,  thus  so  dividing  the 
Placing  of  the  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  impossible  to  lay  out 

school  building  suitable  athletic  grounds  on  any  part 

of  the  area.  The  building  should  be  near  the  front,  with 
shrubs,  perennial  flowers  and  a  well-kept  lawn  between 
it  and  the  road.    At  the  sides  and  rear  of  the  building 


434  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

there  will  then  be  space  for  the  athletic  activities  without 
interfering  with  the  windows,  or  with  plants  and  shrubs 
growing  on  the  grounds. 

The  school  playgrounds  should  be  thoroughly  leveled 
and  sodded  and  the  grass  carefully  mowed,  not  only 
Preparation  of  the  during  the  school  term  but  through 
playgrounds  the    summer   as   well,   in  order  that 

coarse  stubble  and  weeds  may  not  interfere  with  games 
and  play  when  the  school  first  opens  in  the  fall.  All 
rough  places  should  be  smoothed,  gullies  filled,  stones  and 
cinders  removed,  and  everything  else  accomplished  that 
is  required  to  put  the  grounds  in  first-class  condition.  It 
has  been  estimated  by  one  student  of  school  playgrounds 
that  half  the  rural-school  yards  of  the  country  could  be 
Wiproved  fifty  per  cent,  by  the  simple  process  of  closing 
\chool  early  one  or  two  afternoons,  and  setting  the  chil- 
dren at  work  with  rakes,  hoes  and  shovels,  leveling,  clean- 
ing up  and  otherwise  putting  the  grounds  into  condition. 
Where  the  yard  needs  a  more  thorough  treatment  than 
can  be  given  by  the  pupils,  the  school  officers  should 
not  hesitate  to  employ  the  help  required  and  pay  for  it 
out  of  public  funds. 

The  next  important  factor  is  that  of  apparatus.  A 
great  many  schools  are  now  installing  play  equipment 
on  their  grounds.  Very  frequently 
^^  this  is  done  without  consultation  with 

any  authority  or  expert  on  the  matter  of  apparatus,  and 
the  best  is  not  always  selected.  And  not  only  is  the 
best  apparatus  not  always  chosen,  but  some  that  is  posi- 
tively dangerous  is  being  employed.  The  various  pieces 
are  frequently  set  in  wrong  places,  and  sometimes  they 
cost  several  times  what  they  should.  All  these  difficulties 
can  be  removed  by  a  little  care  and  study. 


THE    PLAYGROUND  435 

The  simplest,  cheapest  and  most  serviceable  piece  of 

equipment  for  the  play  of  younger  children  is  the  sand 

^.  ...  bin.     In  fact  the  sand  bin  may  be 

The  sand  bin  n   j    .1       ^  ,     ,  ,    , 

called  the   forerunner  of  the  whole 

playground  movement,  for  out  of  it  have  grown  many 
other  developments  of  the  playground  idea.  Long  before 
the  child  is  old  enough  to  start  to  school,  he  loves  to 
play  in  the  sand,  and  this  interest  continues  up  to  the 
age  of  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  sand  bin  takes  up  little 
room  and  may  be  placed  in  some  corner  where  the  larger 
children  would  not  find  space  enough  for  their  games. 
It  should  be  about  eight  by  twelve  feet  and  ten  inches 
high.  Around  the  edge  should  be  placed  as  a  table  a 
twelve-inch  board,  which  may  be  used  either  for  molding 
the  sand  or  as  a  seat  for  the  young  children.  The  sand 
bin  should  be  placed  in  the  shade,  as  otherwise  the  sand 
becomes  too  hot  in  the  summer  time,  and  the  children 
are  exposed  to  the  heat  when  at  play.  The  finer  and 
whiter  the  sand  the  better,  although  any  good  plasterers' 
sand  will  be  suitable.  It  is  evident  from  hygienic  con- 
siderations that  the  sand  should  occasionally  be  removed 
and  clean  sand  be  put  in  its  place. 

Probably  the  most  common  piece  of  apparatus  for  the 
play  of  young  children  is  the  swing,  and  almost  every 

school  when  it  starts  the  installation 
School  swings  r     ,  .       ,      .  vu        • 

*  of  play  apparatus  begms  with  swmgs. 

The  swing  is,  however,  unless  certain  cautions  are  ob- 
served, one  of  the  most  dangerous  of  all  pieces  of  play 
apparatus.  Swings  are  also  frequently  so  constructed 
as  to  look  unsightly,  and  obstruct  the  use  of  the  grounds 
for  other  play.  The  most  approved  type  of  swing  now 
being  used  on  the  school  playground  has  the  frame  made 


436  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

of  steel  gas  pipe  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  inches  in 
diameter.  The  uprights  are  well  braced  in  both  direc- 
tions and  set  in  concrete  footings  some  twenty  inches 
square  and  from  three  to  four  feet  deep. 

The  great  danger  from  swings  is  not,  as  most  people 
think,  from  falling  out  while  the  swing  is  in  motion. 
This,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  rarely  happens.  Nine  accidents 
out  of  ten  caused  by  swings  are  from  hitting  children  who 
are  running  by.  If  a  child  runs  past  the  swing  and  is 
struck  on  the  side  of  the  head  by  the  swing  board,  he 
will  certainly  be  seriously  injured,  and  runs  danger  of 
being  killed.  A  device  commonly  used  in  connection 
with  school  swings  is  that  of  nailing  a  piece  of  rubber 
hose  on  each  side  of  the  swing  board  to  deaden  the  blow 
in  case  a  child  is  struck.  Swings  for  school  yards  should 
not  be  more  than  ten  feet  high,  and  for  younger  children 
not  more  than  eight.  As  much  enjoyment  can  be  had 
from  a  swing  of  this  height  as  from  a  taller  one,  and 
the  danger  is  altogether  less.  Swings  should  always  be 
set  in  such  position  that  they  operate  parallel  to  the 
school  fence  or  building,  and  never  at  right  angles,  be- 
cause of  the  greater  danger  of  striking  children  engaged 
in  other  play.  If  swings  are  placed  under  strict  rules, 
such  as  allowing  no  children  to  swing  standing  up,  the 
danger  from  their  use  will  be  greatly  minimized.  The 
steel  pipes  together  with  the  footings  for  the  swing  can 
be  purchased  from  the  local  machinery  dealers.  The 
boards  can  be  made  by  any  rural  carpenter  or  by  the  boys 
of  the  school.  There  should  be  several  swings  as  a  part 
of  the  playground  equipment  of  any  good-sized  rural 
school. 

The  see-saw  as  a  piece  of  play  apparatus  is  as  old  as 


THE  PLAYGROUND  437 

the  impulse  to  play  itself.  It  is  not,  however,  one  of 
the  most  satisfactory  devices  for  the  school  ground.  In 
„.  the  first  place,  the  see-saw  requires 

practically  no  physical  exercise,  it  in- 
volves no  mental  skill  or  invention  and  requires  but  little 
social  mingling.  It  therefore  possesses  a  minimum  of 
advantage  in  physical  or  mental  training.  The  see-saw, 
if  not  well  constructed,  is  also  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
pieces  of  apparatus,  simple  and  harmless  as  it  looks. 
Especially  is  the  short  see-saw  to  be  dreaded.  The  steep 
angle  increases  the  liability  that  the  child  at  the  lower 
end  will  slide  off,  letting  the  other  one  drop  down  to  the 
ground.  The  longer  the  see-saw,  the  safer,  provided  it 
is  not  lengthened  beyond  the  point  of  safety  in  strength. 
The  long  see-saw  should  be  carefully  supported  and  the 
number  of  children  allowed  on  either  end  at  the  same 
time  strictly  limited.  Every  see-saw  should  be  provided 
with  some  device  by  which  the  child  can  cling  with  his 
hands.  One  school  which  had  recently  introduced  a  new 
set  of  poorly  constructed  see-saws  reported  a  half-dozen 
broken  arms  within  a  few  weeks  of  their  use.  Probably 
the  best  school  ground  see-saw  is  made  out  of  a  fourteen- 
foot  plank,  twelve  inches  wide,  set  upon  a  steel  or  con- 
crete support, 

A  newer  piece  of  apparatus  and  one  rapidly  coming 
into  great  favor  upon  the  school  ground  has  been  copied 
.  from  the  amusement  park.     This  is 

known  as  the  slide.  That  the  slide 
will  minister  to  a  very  fundamental  play  impulse  is  evi- 
dent from  the  fact  that  all  children  possess  an  irresistible 
tendency  to  slide  down  banisters,  cellar  doors,  or  any 
other  available  slope.     Many  people  have  the  idea  that* 


438  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

the  slide  is  dangerous  because  of  its  height.  One  ex- 
perienced play  director  reports,  however,  that  in  thirteen 
years'  constant  experience  with  the  use  of  school  play- 
ground slides,  no  accident  of  serious  nature  has  ever  oc- 
curred except  by  slivers  from  carelessly  made  slides, 
where  cheap  material  was  used.  Mothers  sometimes  ob- 
ject to  the  use  of  the  slide  as  play  apparatus,  saying  that 
it  is  hard  on  clothes.  This,  however,  is  disputed  by  those 
who  are  familiar  with  its  use,  especially  if  the  slide  is 
made  of  smooth  material  and  kept  in  good  condition. 

Unlike  the  sand  bins,  the  see-saws  and  the  swings, 
the  making  of  the  slide  should  probably  not  be  under- 
Installation  of  taken  as  a  piece  of  home  construction, 

the  slide  It  can  be  bought  for  as  little  as  it  will 

cost  to  make  it,  and  for  less  if  a  carpenter  has  to  be  hired 
for  its  construction.  Steel  slides  have  been  devised  and 
are  found  in  operation  in  various  playgrounds.  They  are, 
however,  not  entirely  satisfactory,  being  at  all  times  sub- 
ject to  rust,  and  in  the  winter  proving  too  cold  and  in  the 
summer  too  hot  for  comfort.  Probably  the  best  slide  is 
that  made  of  maple.  This  material  sometimes  warps 
slightly  but  it  never  slivers  and  can  be  finished  very  hard 
and  smooth.  The  cost  of  these  slides  can  be  estimated 
from  the  fact  that  a  Chicago  firm  sells  a  nine-foot  slide 
for  seven  dollars  and  fifty  cents  and  a  fifteen-foot  slide 
for  twenty-five  dollars.  Although  the  slide  costs  slightly 
more  for  first  installation  than  some  other  pieces  of 
apparatus,  it  is  really  highly  economical,  as  almost  any 
number  of  children  can  use  it,  following  one  another  in 
rapid  succession.  One  slide  will  thus  serve  many  times 
the  number  that  can  use  a  swing  or  a  teeter  board. 

The  horizontal  bar  should  be  a  part  of  every  school 
playground  equipment.     Half-grown  boys  always  have 


THE   PLAYGROUND  439 

acrobatic  tendencies,  and  desire  to  show  their  muscular 

strength  and  agility  in  the  various  performances  pos- 

«,,-.-•  ^  1  L  sible  with  the  horizontal  bar.  These 
The  nonzontai  oar  .  ,        .         , 

bars  are  easily  set  either  in  substan- 
tial wooden  posts  or  on  steel  supports  similar  to  the 
standards  for  the  swings.  It  is  well  in  a  school  of  some 
size  to  have  several  bars,  one  five  and  a  quarter  feet,  one 
six  feet,  and  one  six  and  a  half  feet  high.  Since  it  is 
usually  impossible  to  have  mats  under  these  bars  as  is  the 
rule  in  gymnasiums,  the  solid  earth  should  always  be 
dug  out  from  under  them  and  the  cavity  filled  with  fresh 
sand,  so  as  to  reduce  the  danger  from  falling.  The  bar 
itself  should  be  detachable  from  the  posts  so  that  it  can 
be  taken  in  and  kept  free  from  rust  when  not  in  use. 
Suspended  rings  for  acrobatic  performance  can  also  be 
easily  and  cheaply  installed.  These  should  be  of  standard 
make,  and  so  securely  fastened  that  no  accident  from 
breakage  is  possible.  If,  in  addition,  several  two-inch 
climbing  ropes  are  included  in  the  equipment,  this  phase 
of  the  playground  apparatus  will  be  fairly  well  provided 
for. 

Besides  such  equipment  for  play,  the  school  ground 
should  provide  an  adequate  equipment  for  certain  games. 
Equipment  for  ^^  has  already  been  suggested  that  a 

games  baseball   diamond   should  be   perma- 

nently laid  out  on  the  school  ground.  If  the  school  is 
consolidated  and  hence  has  a  considerable  number  of 
larger  boys,  a  football  field  will  also  be  desirable  for  fall 
use.  Basket  ball  is  coming  to  be  a  favorite  game  with 
both  boys  and  girls,  and  a  basket-ball  court  may  well 
form  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  school  playground. 
Where  space  will  permit,  the  girls  will  find  the  game  of 


440  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

hockey  highly  interesting  and  well  adapted  to  the  type 
of  play  that  should  engage  their  attention. 

Many  schools  are  at  present  introducing  indoor  base- 
ball played  out-of-doors.    This  game  is  suitable  for  girls 

as  well  as  for  boys.    The  regulation 

Indoor  baseball  ,.  j  •    .u-  4.    c       r^.  t,i. 

diamond  is  thirty-nve  feet  square,  but 

the  game  can  be  satisfactorily  played,  at  least  by  girls,  on 
a  twenty-seven-foot  diamond.  Bases  are  made  of  sacks 
filled  with  sand,  and  a  seventeen-inch  ball  is  used.  The 
diamond  should  be  so  placed  that  the  ball  will  not  be 
batted  over  the  fence  or  against  the  school  windows. 

Volley  ball  is  coming  to  be  one  of  the  favorite  school 
games,  especially  for  schools  that  have  not  sufficient  room 
for  all  kinds  of  games  upon  the  play- 
°  ^y    ^  ground.    It  is  a  game  that  requires  but 

very  little  space  and  one  which  children  of  all  ages  can 
easily  learn  to  play.  It  demands  constant  activity,  quick- 
ness of  perception,  and  accuracy  of  judgment ;  and  it  has 
a  tendency  to  correct  the  effects  of  bad  postures  in  the 
schoolroom.  The  equipment  costs  next  to  nothing. 
Closely  related  to  volley  ball  is  another  ball  game  called 
"tether"  ball.  This  game  also  requires  but  little  space 
and  is  adapted  to  people  of  various  ages  and  to  both 
sexes.  The  rules  for  laying  out  all  these  grounds  and 
for  playing  games  can  be  had  from  any  athletic  library, 
such  as  the  Spaulding  Library,  of  Chicago,  for  ten  cents 
for  each  set  of  rules. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  any  weight-throwing  such  as  the 
discus  or  the  shot  or  even  quoits  should  be  allowed  on  the 
school  playground  on  account  of 
The  running  track  ^j^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  children  en- 
gaged in  other  sports.  However,  every  rural  school 
could    easily    provide    a    running    track    and    a    jump- 


THE   PLAYGROUND  441 

ing  pit  along  one  side  of  the  yard.  The  running  track 
will  not  require  any  special  expense  except  the  smooth- 
ing, although  if  the  track  is  cindered  and  rolled,  it  will  be 
an  advantage.  The  track  should  be  some  ten  feet  wide 
and  if  possible  one  hundred  yards  long.  This  track  will 
be  found  highly  serviceable  not  only  for  the  larger  boys, 
but  for  the  younger  children  as  well.  Students  of  child 
life  have  discovered  that  interest  in  running  has  reached 
its  height  at  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven  years,  and  has  a 
tendency  to  decline  after  that  age.  An  almost  endless 
number  of  relay  races  and  other  forms  of  track  events 
can  be  arranged  if  this  simple  device  is  provided  for. 

Finally,  the  rural-school  playground  should  have  at 
least  one,  and  probably  several  jumping  pits.  The  pits 
should  be  filled  with  sand,  which 
ought  at  all  times  when  in  use  to  be 
kept  well  stirred,  and  soft,  so  as  to  avoid  the  jar  that 
comes  from  striking  after  the  jump.  The  approach  to 
the  pit  should  be  supplied  with  a  regular  take-off  board 
for  the  broad  jump.  As  a  companion  device,  there 
should  be  a  pit  provided  with  standards  carefully  set  for 
the  high  jump. 

If  it  is  objected  that  all  this  equipment  costs  so  much 
that  it  is  out  of  the  range  of  possibility  in  the  average 
rural  school,  it  may  be  answered  that  with  the  neighbor- 
hood help  available,  the  entire  equipment  could  probably 
be  installed  for  less  than  one  hundred  dollars.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  any  other  one  hundred  dollars  invested 
by  the  community  in  the  education  of  its  children  will 
bring  larger  results  or  greater  happiness  than  this  invest- 
ment in  the  school  playground  and  its  apparatus. 

And  even  if  public  funds  are  not  at  present  generally 
available  for  the  equipment  of  the  school  playground,  the 


•442  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

case  is,  nevertheless,  far  from  hopeless.  New  move- 
ments usually  must  be  initiated  by  private  enterprise. 
Cost  of  apparatus  Many  of  the  best  school  playgrounds 
and  how  met  now   in  use  were  prepared  and  the 

npparatus  provided  through  the  efforts  of  enthusiastic 
teachers  and  pupils.  School  sociables,  entertainments, 
auctions  of  articles  made  in  the  manual-training  shop 
or  the  domestic-science  course,  and  canvasses  for  funds 
by  the  pupils,  are  some  of  the  means  that  have  been  suc- 
cessfully employed  for  this  purpose.  Often  a  "neighbor- 
hood day"  can  be  arranged  in  connection  with  some 
school  program,  and  a  large  amount  of  work  on  the 
grounds  and  apparatus  carried  out  without  cost.  In 
many  cases,  material  even,  has  been  freely  given  by 
patrons  or  friends  interested  in  the  playground.  An  en- 
thusiastic, well-informed  teacher  can  furnish  a  play- 
ground for  his  school  if  he  will. 

This  all  means  that  the  teacher  must  himself  know  how 
to  play.    He  should  know  plays  and  games  as  he  knows 

^,     ^     ,  ^     his  arithmetic  and  geography,  and  be 

The  teacher  must  .  &     &     f  ^ » 

know  plays  and  able  to  mstruct  on  the  playground  as 
B^"^®^  well  as  in  the  class  room.   He  should 

be  familiar  with  playground  apparatus,  and  know  the  best 
types  and  their  cost.  He  should  be  able  to  direct  in  the 
laying  out  of  a  baseball  court,  and  to  supervise  the  erec- 
tion of  swings,  giant  strides  and  teeter  boards.  The 
books  of  rules  governing  the  games  suitable  for  the 
school  should  be  as  much  a  part  of  his  library  as  any 
other  reference  works.  Nor  should  this  preparation  and 
knowledge  be  in  any  sense  perfunctory  or  professional. 
The  teacher  should  love  play  for  its  own  sake,  and  believe 
in  it  as  an  important  part  of  education,  both  for  himself 
and  his  pupils. 


THE   PLAYGROUND  443 

FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  Do  the  children  of  your  school  know  how  to  play — 
have  they  a  rather  wide  range  of  plays  and  games 
adapted  to  their  age  and  sex  ? 

2.  Have  you  taught  your  pupils  any  new  games? 
What  books  of  games  and  plays  are  you  familiar  with? 
Were  you  ever  taught  games  and  plays  ? 

3.  Have  you  ever  found  pupils  quarreling  or  fighting 
principally  because  they  had  nothing  better  to  do?  Are 
the  children  safer  morally  when  engaged  in  play  than 
when  loitering  about? 

4.  Is  your  school  ground  suitable  for  games  and 
plays  ?    If  not,  could  it  not  be  improved  to  make  it  so  ? 

5.  Do  you  not  believe  that  you  could  arrange  to  have 
your  school  equipped  with  a  reasonable  'amount  of  play 
apparatus  as  described  in  the  chapter?  Would  it  be  a 
good  plan  to  start  the  project  with  a  school  sociable 
in  order  to  raise  a  fund? 

6.  You  can,  of  course,  arrange  for  a  running  track, 
jumping  pits  and  the  like  with  absolutely  no  expense,  if 
you  can  obtain  the  help  of  a  number  of  the  larger  boys 
of  the  school  to  do  the  work.  Will  it  not  pay  you  to 
do  at  least  this  much  as  a  start? 

7.  Do  you  plan  to  inform  yourself  on  the  matter  of 
plays  and  games  and  their  rules,  so  that  you  can  direct, 
referee,  or  even  coach  for  them? 

8.  Do  you,  yourself,  like  games  and  plays?  Should 
a  teacher  play  with  the  pupils  ? 


PART  VI 

THE  OUTLOOK  FOR  RURAL 
EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


THE  NEW  EDUCATION 


What,  then,  is  the  outlook  for  rural  education?  Amer- 
ica is  the  land  of  big  things.  Ours  is  a  country  so  broad 
Greatness  of  *^^^  three  centuries  have  not  sufficed 

American  en-  to  people  all  its  vast  domain.    We  are 

terpnse  engaged  in  undertakings  so  large  that 

the  continent  is  spanned  by  a  railway,  or  a  canal  is 
blasted  through  a  mountain  range  to  unite  the  waters 
of  the  oceans,  and  we  hardly  stop  to  think  about  it,  let 
alone  to  wonder  over  it.  We  are  busy  garnering  for- 
tunes from  natural  resources  so  rich  that  we  can  only 
guess  at  the  wealth  hidden  away  in  our  mines,  our  forests 
and  our  soil.  We  conceive  our  commercial  enterprises 
in  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars;  we  run  our  sky- 
scrapers up  fifty  stories ;  and  we  spread  our  factories  out 
over  broad  acres  of  ground. 

But  the  greatest  projects  and  most  significant  enter- 
prises in  which  we  are  to-day  engaged  are  not,  after  all, 
the  extension  of  our  boundary-lines,  the  digging  of  our 
canals,  or  the  operating  of  our  factories, — ^but  the  run- 
ning of  our  public  school  system. 

This  is  true  if  we  consider  the  question  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  destinies  involved ;  for  the  very  foundations 
Magnitude  of  our  o^  ^^^^  home  and  state  are  found  in 
school  system  the  public  schools.     It  is  true  from 

the   standpoint   of   expense:   two   million   dollars   each 

447 


448  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

school-day,  some  four  hundred  million  dollars  a  year, 
go  for  the  current  running  expenses  of  our  schools. 
The  schools  are  our  greatest  project  viewed  from  the 
number  of  people  engaged  in  the  work;  for  on  each 
school-day  nearly  twenty  million  boys  and  girls  look  into 
the  faces  of  half  a  million  teachers.  Twenty  million 
school  children!  A  number  two-thirds  as  great  as  the 
entire  population  of  the  country  when  the  guns  were  fired 
on  Fort  Sumter.  Twenty  millions !  So  many  that  if  they 
should  take  hold  of  hands  in  one  great  line  they  would 
girdle  the  earth  at  its  greatest  circumference.  Or,  if  they 
were  gathered  at  one  place,  say  on  the  eastern  coast, 
formed  in  columns  of  four,  military  fashion,  and 
marched  westward  across  the  country,  other  fours  wheel- 
ing into  line  continuously  at  the  rear,  the  head  of  the  col- 
umn would  have  to  pass  across  the  coal  fields  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, across  Ohio  and  Indiana,  on  out  across  the  great 
Middle  West,  and  on  to  the  very  waters  of  the  Golden 
Gate  before  the  last  of  the  fours  would  find  room  at  the 
rear  of  the  column.  So  great  is  the  army  of  American 
boys  and  girls  whose  future  success  and  happiness  depend 
so  largely  on  the  efficiency  of  our  great  system  of  schools. 
The  American  public  school  system  really  had  its 
origin  on  the  day  when  the  one  hundred  pilgrims  left  the 
Origin  of  our  Mayflower  and  set  foot  on  the  new 

public  schools  continent.     There  they  stood  on  that 

gray  autumn  afternoon,  with  three  thousand  miles  of 
threatening  waves  between  them  and  the  homes  they  had 
deserted  for  a  principle.  There  they  stood,  with  three 
thousand  miles  of  unclaimed  wilderness,  but  no  homes, 
before  them.  These  Puritans  possessed  a  genius  for 
three  things:  government,  religion  and  education.     And 


THE   NEW    EDUCATION  449 

it  is  to  their  genius  for  education  that  we  owe  the  begin- 
nings of  our  school  system.  For  in  1636,  when  Boston 
was  but  six  years  old,  these  colonists  did  a  marvelous 
thing:  they  started  the  Boston  Latin  Grammar  School,  a 
school  of  high-school  grade.  Boston  was  then  but  a 
straggling  little  village  along  one  crooked  street ;  poverty 
was  threatening  the  very  existence  of  almost  every 
household ;  and  nearly  half  of  the  members  of  the  colony 
had  been  carried  to  their  last  resting-place  on  the  hillside 
near  the  village.  Yet  out  of  their  penury  and  want,  they 
found  it  possible  to  provide  for  education,  so  that  learn- 
ing might  "not  be  buried  in  the  graves  of  the  fathers." 

But  they  did  not  stop  here.  Before  the  first  generation 
after  the  MayUower  cast  anchor  were  past  school  age. 
Early  educational  Massachusetts  had  passed  a  series  of 
progress  school  laws  laying  the  foundations  of 

our  entire  school  system — the  first  in  the  world  to  ofifer 
education  free  to  all  at  public  expense  through  taxes 
voted  by  the  people  themselves.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to 
trace  the  fascinating  story  of  the  development  of  the 
struggling  infant  of  yesterday  to  the  great  giant  of  to- 
day. Suffice  it  to  say,  that  as  our  nation  grew  and  waxed 
strong,  the  schools  were  changed  to  meet  new  conditions, 
until  we  have  the  magnificent  system  of  the  present  day. 

But  the  change  is  still  going  on.  Indeed  it  is  taking 
place  faster  to-day  than  ever  before.  The  twentieth 
Profound  changes  century,  young  as  it  is,  has  seen 
now  under  way  changes  so  marked  that  we  are  justi- 
fied in  speaking  of  "the  new  education."  We  are  on  the 
eve,  if  not  in  the  midst,  of  an  educational  movement  that 
will  have  profound  social  effects,  and  result  in  funda- 
mental changes  in  our  educational  system. 


450  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

Nor  is  this  new  movement  confined  to  any  one  class  of 
schools.  It  reaches  from  the  largest  city  school  to  the 
A  new  interest  smallest   rural   district.     Our  people 

in  education  everywhere   are   experiencing  a  new 

birth  of  educational  interest  and  enthusiasm.  Legislatures 
in  every  state  are  passing  new  laws  promoting  education. 
National,  state  and  private  commissions  have  been  ap- 
pointed to  study  various  educational  questions,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  these  commissions  are  devoting  their 
attention  to  the  rural  schools.  The  daily  press,  the  weekly 
press  and  the  magazines  are  giving  an  unwonted  amount 
of  space  to  criticizing  or  defending  the  public  schools. 
That  much  of  the  discussion  is  irrelevant  and  much  of 
the  criticism  unjust  does  not  so  much  matter.  It  is  far 
better  to  discuss  a  thing  without  settling  it  than  to  settle 
it  without  discussing  it.  The  main  point  is  that  thinking 
people  everywhere  are  coming  to  realize  that  our  greatest 
national  problems  are  those  connected  with  the  education 
of  our  children. 

The  urgent  need  is  for  the  teachers,  the  natural  lead- 
ers of  the  educational  movement  now  getting  under  way, 
Present  need  *°  ^^^  clearly  the  weighty  problems 

of  leadership  involved,  and  the  magnificent  oppor- 

tunities oflfered.  They  must  be  ready  to  direct  the  tide  of 
this  newly  awakened  energy  and  enthusiasm  so  that  prog- 
ress shall  result.  They  must  be  able  to  teach  the  igno- 
rant, to  arouse  the  indiflferent,  lend  courage  to  the  weak- 
hearted,  and  spur  on  the  indifferent.  For  much  needs 
to  be  done.  The  people  are  far  from  clear  at  certain 
points  as  to  what  they  need  or  desire.  They  only  know 
that  education  is  coming  to  have  a  new  and  more  vital 
meaning,  and  that  one's  usefulness  as  a  citizen,  and 
one's  efficiency  and  future  happiness  depend  very  much 


THE   NEW   EDUCATION  451 

on  the  quality  and  amount  of  this  education.  They  know 
that  a  new  ideal  for  education  is  arising,  but  they  are 
not  wholly  clear  as  to  the  nature  and  meaning  of  the 
ideal.  It  is  for  the  teachers  to  reveal  this  to  them.  But 
the  blind  must  not  undertake  to  lead  the  blind.  The 
teachers  themselves  must  catch  the  spirit  of  the  new  edu- 
cation, and  be  its  true  interpreters  to  the  people  whom 
they  serve. 

Every  teacher  needs  now  and  then  to  step  back  from 
the  details  and  minutiae  of  his  work  and  view  it  in  its 
The  teacher's  larger  aspects;  for  the  forest  is  al- 

need  of  vision  ways  in  danger  of  becoming  hidden 

by  the  trees.  We  need  to  separate  ourselves  from  the 
daily  grind  and  routine,  and  take  a  survey  of  the  broader 
educational  problems,  especially  as  they  relate  to  our  own 
field  of  activity.  For  only  thus  can  we  make  sure  that 
we  are  moving  toward  a  goal,  and  not  merely  in  a  circle. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  volume  to  help  the  teacher 
take  such  a  view  of  our  contemporary  education,  with 
Vital  questions  especial     reference     to     the     rural 

demanding  answer  schools.  Looked  at  from  such  a  van- 
tage point,  what  do  we  discover?  What  are  the  ideals 
toward  which  we  are  moving?  What  can  we  do  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  the  rural  schools  for  the  millions 
of  American  boys  and  girls  who  receive  all  their  educa- 
tion in  these  schools?  How  can  we  make  the  rural 
schools  return  larger  service  to  the  nation,  and  particu- 
larly to  the  agricultural  communities  which  support 
them?  How  can  we  increase  the  loyalty  of  the  rural 
community  to  its  school  ?  How  can  we  keep  the  children 
of  the  rural  communities  in  school  longer,  so  that  they 
may  gain  as  good  an  education  as  that  possessed  by  the 
town  and  city  children  ?  How  can  we  improve  the  rural- 


452  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

school  buildings  and  equipment?  How  can  the  rural 
school  help  keep  the  people  of  the  farms  from  flocking  to 
the  towns  and  cities?  How,  in  short,  can  we  gain  the 
best  possible  educational  opportunities  for  the  one-half 
of  our  people  who  are  educated  in  the  rural  schools  ? 

It  is  always  important  that  such  questions  should  be 
answered,  but  it  is  doubly  important  that  they  should  be 
Why  we  must  answered   just   at   the   present   time, 

answer  such  For  we   are   advancing.     And  man, 

questions  ijj^g  ^j^g  qJ^  warrior  who  cast  his  hel- 

met far  ahead  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy  and  then 
fought  his  way  forward  to  it,  always  advances  by  pur- 
suing a  flying  goal, — some  ideal  that  he  sets  on  ahead  as 
the  end  of  his  striving.  It  is  all  the  more  important  that 
we  see  our  way  clearly  now  because  we  are  advancing 
so  rapidly,  and  mistakes  made  in  our  educational  policy 
will  handicap  coming  generations  of  pupils. 

The  new  movement  toward  efficiency  in  the  rural 
schools  is  but  a  part  of  a  larger  movement  affecting  all 
What  is  the  "new  ^^^  schools.  It  can  therefore  best  bei 
education"?  understood   by   inquiring  first.   How 

are  we  changing  our  ideal  toward  the  meaning  of  educa- 
tion in  general?  What  do  we  mean  by  the  "new  educa- 
tion"? 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  present  age  that  nothing  is 
taken  for  granted.  The  question.  Why,  confronts  us  at 
Crucial  questions  ^very  turn.  Just  why  should,  we  ex- 
asked  of  education  pend  half  of  all  our  taxes  for  the 
running  expenses  of  our  schools?  Why  should  we  sup- 
port nearly  twenty  millions  of  our  youth  while  they  are 
employing  their  time  in  school?  Why  should  we  with- 
draw over  half  a  million  of  our  best  men  and  women 
from   other   occupations    and   pay   them    for   teaching 


THE   NEW   EDUCATION  453 

school?  Why  should  boys  or  girls  spend  eight,  twelve 
or  sixteen  years  o£  their  lives  in  school,  instead  of  enter- 
ing on  some  occupation?  What  is  education,  any  way, 
that  we  should  make  so  much  trouble  over  it  ?  What  do 
we  mean  by  education  ?  What  do  we  mean  by  the  "new 
education"  ? 

Each  term  means  just  what  those  who  use  it  put  into  it 
as  meaning.  The  term  education  has  meant  vastly  differ- 
Changing  meaning  ent  things  at  different  stages  of  his- 
of  education  toryo    In  the  Middle  Ages,  education 

meant  very  little.  It  was  not  thought  to  have  any  part 
in  culture,  or  in  preparation  for  life.  It  was  fit  only  for 
the  slave  or  underling,  and  far  beneath  the  dignity  of  the 
merry  knights  who  so  gallantly  slew  one  another  in  joust 
or  battle.  Still  less  was  it  allowed  to  mar  the  charms  of 
the  fair  ladies  of  the  time.  Hence  very  few  of  either 
sex  could  even  read  or  write,  and  there  was  no  education 
worthy  of  the  name. 

With  the  Renaissance,  the  new  birth  of  learning  of 

the  fifteenth  century,  education  came  to  be  looked  on 

Tk  r      -  --*       with  more  favor.     It  was  seen  to  be 

Dawn  of  present 

concept  of  a  part  of  culture  and  development, 

education  ^^^^  education  was  the  luxury  of  the 

few  and  not  the  necessity  of  the  many ;  hence  the  masses 
still  plodded  on  in  intellectual  darkness.  The  Reforma- 
tion brought  the  demand  for  a  more  general  education. 
But  education  was  conceived  very  narrowly,  even  by 
most  of  the  educated.  Every  man  must  be  able  to  read 
his  own  Bible,  but  education  was  thought  to  play  little 
part  in  the  preparation  for  the  secular  affairs  of  life. 
And  even  in  establishing  our  own  New  England  schools, 
the  forerunners  of  our  great  public  school  system,  the 
chief  purpose  as  set  forth  in  the  statute  was  to  circum- 


454  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

vent  "that  old  deluder,  Satan,"  through  the  religious  use 
of  education. 

But  the  meaning  of  education  has  gradually  been  ex- 
panding. The  rise  of  democracy  and  the  increased  worth 
Influence  of  placed  on  the  individual  have  shown 

democracy  upon  us  that  every  person  has  a  right  to  the 
education  f^jj   development  of  his   powers   as 

well  as  the  right  to  "life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness." Every  child,  therefore,  has  the  right  to  an  educa- 
tion, and  to  such  an  education  as  will  bring  out  to  the 
fullest  degree  the  capacities  inherent  in  his  nature.  For 
these  are  his  life's  capital,  his  inheritance  from  former 
generations ;  they  constitute  the  power  he  will  be  able  to 
invest  in  his  career,  and  measure  the  efficiency  possible 
for  him  to  attain  in  all  his  activities.  Not  to  supply  our 
children  with  the  best  opportunities  we  are  able  to  com- 
mand for  their  education  is  to  rob  them  of  their  birth- 
right, and  to  fall  beneath  our  own  ideals  for  social  de- 
mocracy. 

A  new  meaning  is  also  being  given  education  from  an- 
other point  of  view.  It  is  coming  to  be  seen  as  directly 
New  demand  related  to  efficiency.    And  efficiency  is 

for  efficiency  the  key-note  of  the  twentieth  century. 

Efficiency  is  the  one  thing  the  lack  of  which  is  not  forgiven 
in  the  industrial  or  professional  world,  and  the  possession 
of  which  brings  the  highest  success  and  rewards.  It  is  the 
open  sesame  in  every  line  of  activity.  Industrial  workers 
must  be  able  to  turn  out  a  certain  amount  and  grade  of 
the  product  they  work  on,  or  else  be  crowded  out  by  those 
who  can ;  the  demands  are  relentless.  Great  commercial 
enterprises  are  built  on  a  foundation  of  efficiency  reach- 
ing from  the  head  manager  to  the  lowest  employee.  Ag- 
riculture demands  efficiency  to  a  degree  undreamed  of 


THE   NEW   EDUCATION  455 

a  generation  ago.  When  we  employ  a  lawyer  or  a  sur- 
geon, we  ask  for  one  thing — efficiency.  Explanations 
and  excuses  are  not  accepted  as  legal  tender ;  nothing  but 
results  will  be  accepted.  And  the  same  demand  applies 
in  the  management  of  the  home.  The  hygienic  care  of 
children,  the  scientific  selection  and  preparation  of  food, 
and  intelligent  guarding  against  disease,  are  a  part  of  the 
general  demand  for  efficiency  applied  to  the  household. 

And  this  new  demand  for  efficiency  has  helped  us  to 
understand  the  real  meaning  of  education.  Education  is 
Education  the  road  ^^^  open  road  to  efficiency.  This  is 
to  efficiency  the  new  definition  of  education, — the 

meaning  that  is  supplanting  all  other  definitions.  What- 
ever leads  to  efficiency  is  education,  and  what  does  not 
lead  to  efficiency  is  not  education,  whatever  else  it  may 
be.  No  matter  how  long  the  schooling,  or  how  hard  the 
studies,  or  how  great  the  amount  of  learning,  therefore, 
these  things  must  lead  to  efficiency  in  the  concrete  busi- 
ness of  living  if  they  are  to  be  called  true  education. 
Professor  James  tells  us  that  most  of  us  never  succeed 
in  calling  forth  and  using  all  the  powers  we  possess,  and 
estimates  that  if  all  the  power  and  ability  in  men  could 
be  brought  out  and  utilized,  it  would  increase  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  human  race  by  fifty  per  cent,  at  one  leap. 
It  is  the  business  of  education  to  get  hold  of  this  last 
fifty  per  cent,  of  power  in  our  boys  and  girls  and  set  it 
at  work  in  increasing  their  usefulness  and  success.  This 
is  the  new  education, — education  for  efficiency. 

Nor  is  the  greater  efficiency  sought  through  the  new 
ideal  for  education  some  theoretical,  visionary  or  in- 
Practical  meaning  tangible  thing.  It  is  rather  the  result 
of  efficiency  of  harnessing  the  interests,  motives 

and  abilities  of  the  individual,  and  setting  them  at  work 


456  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

on  the  problems  and  duties  lying  nearest  at  hand.  It  re- 
xjuires  that  we  shall  look  out  on  the  millions  of  children 
entering  our  schools  and  see  in  them  the  future  citizens 
of  our  country.  Through  education,  these  children  are  to 
be  so  trained  that  they  shall  not  only  have  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  citizenship,  but  also  the  patriotism,  and  the 
impulse  to  unselfish  service  necessary  to  efficient  citizen- 
ship in  a  republic.  Education  must  eliminate  the  three 
great  foes  of  democracy — ignorance,  selfish  greed  and 
low  ethical  standards.  We  shall  also  see  in  these  children 
the  future  makers  of  the  homes  of  our  land,  and  through 
education  give  them  the  training  necessary  to  the  coming 
fathers  and  mothers  of  our  race.  We  shall  fit  the  men 
to  be  able  to  support  the  home  in  economic  independence, 
and  fit  the  women  to  manage  and  care  for  the  home  and 
to  be  the  true  guides,  comrades  and  teachers  of  the  chil- 
dren. Likewise,  we  shall  see  in  the  rising  generation  the 
future  members  of  the  community,  church  and  all  other 
social  institutions,  and  seek  so  to  educate  them  that  they 
may  in  these  relations  live  the  fullest  lives  possible  for 
themselves,  and  render  the  largest  possible  service  to 
others. 

Nor  does  the  new  ideal  for  education  omit  the  voca- 
tion. For  all  our  welfare,  happiness  and  progress  rest 
Education  and  finally  on  a  foundation  of  labor.   Man 

vocations  was  made  to  work.    In  fruitful  labor 

he  not  only  finds  his  greatest  satisfaction,  but  also  his 
largest  development  and  achievement.  Every  person 
must  therefore  be  fitted  into  some  useful  vocation,  and 
made  an  efficient  worker.  Education  has  long  neglected 
the  worker.  It  has  been  coveted  for  the  culture  and 
training  that  it  gives,  and  has  been  recognized  as  a  nec- 
essary part  of  the  equipment  of  the  professional  man. 


THE   NEW   EDUCATION  457 

But  it  is  only  recently  that  the  education  of  the  industrial 
worker  has  been  realized  as  essential.  The  new  educa- 
tion sees  its  responsibility  in  preparing  every  worker,  no 
matter  what  is  to  be  his  vocation,  for  the  highest  degree 
of  efficiency  in  his  chosen  line. 

We  are  therefore  coming  to  recognize  the  necessity  for 
training  the  hand  as  well  as  the  head.  Towns  and  cities 
Rise  of  vocational  ^^^  establishing  trade  schools  either 
education  in  connection  with  the  high  schools, 

or  else  as  separate  institutions.  Almost  every  field  of 
industry  is  now  represented  in  the  schools  of  some  of 
our  larger  cities,  though  we  are  still  far  behind  the 
schools  of  Europe  in  these  lines.  Agriculture  is  coming 
to  be  a  part  of  the  regular  course  in  a  large  proportion 
of  the  schools  of  our  towns  and  cities.  Courses  in  do- 
mestic science  will  soon  be  almost  as  common  as  those 
in  science  and  mathematics.  And  the  rural  schools  have 
also  felt  the  effects  of  the  new  movement,  and  are  intro- 
ducing studies  relating  to  the  life  and  work  of  the  farm. 

Everywhere,  through  education,  we  are  seeking  to 
open  the  road  to  concrete  efficiency  in  the  actual  affairs 
of  life.  Hence  it  is  that  education  is  coming  to  take 
on  a  new  and  more  vital  meaning  than  it  has  ever  before 
had,  and  people  of  all  classes  are  seeking  its  advantages 
in  ever  increasing  numbers. 

The   new   ideal   in   education   is   also   increasing  the 

amount  of  training  sought  by  those  who  see  in  education 

.     .  ,  the  road  to  efficiency.  The  amount  of 

An  increased  .  -' 

amount  of  edu-  schooling  received  by  the  American 

cation  demanded  child  is  still  far  too  little,  being  slight- 
ly less  than  three  full  years;  but  this  period  is  rapidly 
lengthening.  Every  grade  and  type  of  school  is  feeling 
the  new  impulse  to  a  more  extended  and  complete  educa- 


458  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tion.  The  proportion  of  children  entering  the  primary 
grade  who  go  on  through  the  higher  grades  to  the  end  of 
the  elementary  school  is  constantly  growing.  The  attend- 
ance in  the  high  schools  is  steadily  increasing  in  propor- 
tion to  our  population;  and  the  number  who  continue 
through  the  college  or  the  technical  school  is  becoming 
larger.  Our  people,  long  believing  in  education  as  a 
matter  of  theory,  are  coming  to  believe  in  it  as  a 
matter  of  practical  fact,  and  are  willing  to  invest  time, 
money  and  effort  in  order  to  gain  its  advantages. 

The  rural  school  has  felt  the  effects  of  the  new  stimu- 
lus and  is  retaining  an  increasing  proportion  of  its  pupils 
Effects  upon  the  to  complete  the  eight  grades  of  its 
rural  school  course,  thus  preparing  them  for  the 

high  school.  Rural-school  graduation  is  coming  to  be  a 
regular  feature  of  the  work  among  the  country  schools, 
and  especially  in  rural  districts  where  rural  high  schools 
are  also  available.  It  is  true  that  this  advance  among  the 
rural  schools  has  as  yet  touched  only  a  pitiful  fraction  of 
the  whole  number,  and  that  the  rural  child  of  the  present 
day  is  receiving  only  a  small  part  of  the  education  that 
is  his  by  right.  To  increase  the  amount  of  education  re- 
ceived by  the  farm  child  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
our  educational  problems  of  the  present  day. 

But  perhaps  the  efficiency  ideal  for  education  has  had 
the  most  marked  effect  of  all  on  the  curriculum, — what 
is  given  the  child  to  study  in  order  to  prepare  him  for 
his  life  activity.  When  education  was  looked  on  as  a 
matter  of  mere  culture,  or  of  discipline  of  the  mind,  it 
did  not  matter  so  much  what  was  studied.  But,  since  we 
have  come  to  see  that  education  is  directly  and  immedi- 
ately related  to  success  in  the  concrete  affairs  of  life,  it 


THE    NEW   EDUCATION  459 

has  become  evident  that  the  school  must  present  such 
matter  for  the  child  to  study  as  will  give  him  the  training 
needed  in  these  concrete  affairs.  We  are  no  longer  satis- 
fied therefore  with  the  bare  rudiments  of  education,  nor 
with  an  empty  culture  that  does  not  relate  itself  to  the 
daily  life. 

Under  the  newer  ideal  for  education  we  are  coming  to 
see  that  mental  discipline  is  directly  related  to  the  amount 
Practical  subjects  ^^  interest  and  effort  which  the  pupil 
winning  place  himself  puts  into  study,  and  that  it 

has  no  meaning  except  as  it  applies  to  the  actual  affairs 
in  which  he  sets  his  powers  at  work.  The  recognition  of 
this  principle  is  resulting  in  the  remodeling  of  our  school 
curriculum  in  the  direction  of  supplanting  the  old  formal, 
dry  and  theoretical  disciplinary  studies  with  practical, 
concrete  and  interesting  subjects  fitting  immediately  into 
the  life  and  experience  of  the  learner.  In  the  high 
schools,  Greek  and  Latin  are  giving  way  to  the  study  of 
the  mother-tongue,  the  material  and  social  sciences,  and 
the  handicrafts.  History  is  no  longer  being  taught  as  a 
succession  of  dates  interspersed  with  descriptions  of 
political  intrigues  and  military  campaigns,  but  as  an  ac- 
count of  the  life  and  development  of  a  real  people  and 
their  institutions.  Literature  is  losing  its  mechanical 
and  critical  method,  and  is  being  taught  more  with  refer- 
ence to  its  beauty  and  the  development  of  a  love  for  good 
reading.  Even  the  material  sciences  are  feeling  the  im- 
pulse of  the  new  efficiency  ideal  in  education,  and  the  old 
formal  courses  of  abstract  laws  and  interminable  classi- 
fications are  giving  way  to  practical  phases  of  concrete 
physics,  applied  chemistry,  agricultural  botany,  and  prac- 
tical physiology  and  hygiene. 


46o  BETTER   RURAL'   SCHOOLS 

In  the  leading  rural  schools  the  changes  are  no  less 
marked.  The  empty  drill  over  senseless  arithmetical 
Changes  in  the  tangles  never  to  be  met  in  actual  life, 

rural-school  the  barren  lessons  on  the  niceties  of 

curriculum  grammatical  analysis  and  linguistic  in- 

flections, and  the  useless  and  deadening  crowding  of  the 
memory  with  useless  facts,  dates,  events  and  places 
never  called  for  in  affairs  outside  the  school  have  no 
place  in  the  new  education.  They  do  not  lead  to  effi- 
ciency, hence  are  being  supplanted  with  studies  that  im- 
mediately appeal  to  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  the 
pupils,  and  directly  relate  to  the  life  and  work  of  the 
farm.  The  "three  R's"  are  as  well  taught  as  ever, — 
indeed  they  are  better  taught,  for  there  is  interest  and 
life  in  the  school.  But  in  addition,  the  children  study 
the  farm  crops,  the  farm  stock,  the  farm  home  and  many 
other  things  that  open  the  road  to  efficiency  in  their 
life  and  work.  The  influence  of  the  changes  toward  a 
more  practical  and  interesting  curriculum  can  hardly  be 
overestimated. 

The  new  education  calls  for  efficiency  in  teaching.  It 
is  evident  that  we  can  not  get  efficiency  out  of  education 
New  standards  unless  we  put  efficiency  into  it.     In 

of  teaching  the   older   day,   the  vocation   of   the 

teacher  was  looked  on  with  contempt,  and  the  teacher 
was  not  regarded  with  esteem  in  the  community.  Horace 
Mann  tells  of  visiting  a  school  in  a  miserable  cottage 
where  a  number  of  children  were  crowded  together  with- 
out any  occupation.  He  inquired  of  the  master,  a  with- 
ered old  man  who  lay  on  a  bed  in  the  corner  of  the 
room,  "Are  you  the  schoolmaster?"  "Yes,  sir."  "And 
what  do  you  teach?"  "Nothing,  sir."  "How  is  that?" 
"Because  I  know  nothing."    "Why  were  you  appointed  ?" 


THE   NEW   EDUCATION  461 

**Why,  sir,  I  had  been  taking  care  of  the  pigs  for  many 
years,  but  getting  too  old  and  infirm  for  that,  they  sent 
me  here  to  take  care  of  the  children." 

But  we  are  coming  to  see  in  this  day  that  teaching 
is  a  matter  of  supreme  importance.  The  teacher  is  one 
The  teacher's  ^^  ^^^  most  important  factors  in  our 

position  of  power  civilization,  either  leading  our  chil- 
dren to  efficiency,  or  else  leaving  them  stranded  in  in- 
competence from  lack  of  education.  The  teacher  con- 
fronts a  threefold  problem,  whose  magnitude  is  almost 
appalling.  He  must  know  thoroughly  the  subject-matter 
that  he  is  to  teach,  and  in  addition,  a  wide  range  of  in- 
formation outside  his  immediate  subjects,  so  that  he 
may  have  background  and  perspective  for  his  teaching. 
He  must  know  the  nature  and  mode  of  development  of 
the  child,  his  interests,  ambitions,  problems  and  tempta- 
tions, as  well  as  his  intellect.  And  the  teacher  must  also 
know  the  running  of  the  school,  a  machine  so  intricate 
and  complex  that  its  mastery  is  no  simple  problem.  The 
teacher  will,  therefore,  occupy  a  new  position  of  dignity 
and  power  in  the  new  education.  He  must  be  adequately 
prepared  for  his  work,  and  will  receive  correspondingly 
greater  rewards,  both  in  honor  and  in  financial  compen- 
sation. 


FOR  TEACHERS*  DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  Has  our  advance  in  education  kept  pace  with  our 
industrial  progress  during  the  last  twenty  years?  What 
are  the  dangers  of  allowing  education  to  fall  behind? 
(Political,  social,  economic,  personal.) 

2.  What  evidences  are  there  in  the  schools  themselves 
that  a  new  movement  in  education  is  getting  under  way  ? 
(Point  of  view,  organization,  curriculum,  teaching.) 


462  BETTER   RURAL'   SCHOOLS 

3.  How  much  influence  can  teachers  really  have  to- 
ward stimulating-  or  directing  educational  reform  ?  Upon 
what  factors  does  the  extent  of  the  teacher's  influence 
depend  ? 

4.  Without  reference  to  former  definitions  that  you 
may  have  learned,  what  is  your  definition  of  education? 
Stating  the  same  question  differently,  what  are  the  tests 
or  measures  of  an  educated  person  ?  How  does  this  differ 
from  the  older  point  of  view? 

5.  Measured  by  any  standard  course  of  study  now  in 
use,  what  amount  of  education  do  the  boys  and  girls 
fourteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age  in  your  township 
possess?  (It  would  be  highly  instructive  to  make  a 
careful  survey  of  the  youth  of  your  township  with  a  view 
to  answering  this  question  statistically.  If  such  study 
were  carried  out  for  an  entire  county,  it  would  be  still 
more  interesting.) 

6.  What  rural-school  subjects  most  need  revision  to 
bring  them  closer  to  the  life  of  the  pupils  ?  Do  we  spend 
too  much  time  on  arithmetic?  (Is  mere  number  so  im- 
portant that  its  study  should  claim  nearly  one-fourth  of 
the  elementary  school's  time  for  eight  years?  Do  we 
spend  too  much  time  on  grammar?  Does  a  child  attain 
facility  in  the  use  of  language  through  the  study  of  tech- 
nical grammar  ?) 

7.  What  is  the  social  status  of  the  teacher  ?  Do  teach- 
ers rank  with  business  or  professional  men  in  their 
standing  in  the  community  ?  If  there  is  a  difference,  what 
are  the  causes  ? 

8.  What  are  the  different  forces  now  actually  at  work 
in  reshaping  the  school  and  curriculum?  (Tradition, 
teachers  and  organizations,  social  demand.)  Estimate  the 
relative  importance  of  each  of  these  forces. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE  PROMISING  FUTURE 

In  Spite  of  its  many  shortcomings  rural  education  has 
a  promising  future.  For  the  neglect  of  rural  schools 
Future  of  rural  ed-  ^^^  "^^  ^^^S  continue  under  the  new 
ucation  promising  ideals  that  are  coming  to  dominate  in 
country  life.  The  farmer  and  his  problems  are  now  a 
center  of  public  interest.  Every  force  in  the  nation 
stands  ready  to  cooperate  in  order  that  the  great  funda- 
mental industry  upon  which  every  other  industry  depends 
may  be  a  success.  Large  numbers  of  citizens  are  awake 
to  the  necessity  of  redirecting  many  of  the  rural  activi- 
ties, and  especially  the  rural  schools.  A  great  bankers' 
convention  recently  discussed  rural  education.  Trade 
journals  are  devoting  much  space  to  the  consideration  of 
rural  problems,  and  business  men  are  everywhere  con- 
cerned for  the  advancement  of  rural  schools.  Manufac- 
turers and  captains  of  industry  are  studying  the  rural 
problem  as  carefully  as  the  problems  of  their  own  or- 
ganizations. Learned  and  religious  bodies  throughout 
the  land  are  earnestly  striving  to  understand  and  assist 
in  the  betterment  of  rural  conditions. 

But  most  significant  of  all  are  the,many  signs  that  the 
rural  people  themselves  are  beginning  to  reach  out  for 
the  great  opportunities  they  have  not  yet  utilized.  Farm- 
ers are  coming  to  see  that  their  farms  can  be  made  to 
pay  much  larger  profits  for  the  labor  expended  on  them, 

463 


464  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

and  at  the  same  time  yield  a  greater  return  in  food  and 
supplies  for  the  waiting  millions.  And  they  are  like- 
wise awakening  to  the  obligation  they  owe  their  children 
in  preparing  them  for  a  successful  career. 

All  these  conditions  emphasize  the  importance  of  rural 
education ;  for  education  is,  after  all,  the  only  means  by 
Rural  schools  the  which  the  reconstruction  of  rural  con- 
means  of  progress  ditions  can  be  brought  about.  The 
rural  school  is  the  crucial  factor  in  the  situation  involv- 
ing the  advancement  of  agriculture  and  the  future  of 
rural  life.  As  goes  the  rural  school  for  the  next  genera- 
tion, so  in  large  measure  will  go  the  whole  trend  of 
agricultural  interests.  The  schools  are  the  most  natural 
and  efficient  agency  by  which  the  information  and  new 
ideals  affecting  rural  life  can  be  introduced  into  the  rural 
communities.  Corn  clubs,  dairy  trains  and  farmers'  in- 
stitutes are  all  praiseworthy  and  important  factors,  but 
these  reach  only  a  part  of  the  farming  population.  The 
rural  school  reaches  them  all,  or  at  least  can  easily  reach 
them  all  when  it  is  fulfilling  its  mission. 

So  fully  is  this  fact  realized  that  the  rural  school  is 
coming  to  occupy  the  center  of  educational  interest  and 
R  1  h  1  ow  attention  throughout  the  nation.  The 
the  center  of  federal    government    is    encouraging 

interest  rural    education     in    very    practical 

ways;  the  bureau  of  agriculture  is  making  the  rural- 
school  problem  an  important  feature  of  its  work;  the 
bureau  of  education  is  constantly  studying  the  rural- 
school  question,  and  publishing  much  material  bearing 
on  its  problems.  State  legislatures  are  seeking  to  pro- 
vide for  the  future  of  rural  education;  there  is  not  a 
state  in  the  union  whose  last  legislature  did  not  seriously 
discuss  measures  favorable  to  the  rural  schools,  and  most 


THE    PROMISING   FUTURE  465 

of  them  passed  laws  which  will  have  far-reaching  re- 
sults. 

The  recent  laws  have  taken  many  directions,  among 
which  are  increased  levies  of  taxes  for  the  support  of 
Recent  legislation  ^^^  common  schools;  requirements 
promoting  rural  for  the  better  preparation  of  rural 
education  teachers ;  the  payment  of  higher  sal- 

aries; the  promotion  of  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and 
the  industrial  arts  in  the  rural  schools ;  state  aid  for  the 
consolidation  of  rural  schools ;  better  laws  for  the  trans- 
portation of  pupils  to  consolidated  schools;  provisions 
for  the  establishment  of  experimental  gardens  for  the 
teaching  of  agriculture;  the  betterment  of  rural  school 
•buildings ;  the  providing  of  playgrounds ;  instruction  of 
rural  teachers  in  hygiene  by  competent  medical  authori- 
ties ;  the  extension  of  compulsory  education  laws ;  the 
lengthening  of  the  rural-school  year;  the  establishment 
of  rural-school  libraries ;  providing  better  supervision  for 
rural  teaching;  the  extension  of  high-school  privileges 
among  rural  pupils;  better  facilities  for  the  training  of 
rural  teachers;  the  establishment  of  rural  high  schools. 

These  conditions  all  indicate  that  the  sordid  crust  of 
indifference  is  beginning  to  give  way ;  the  ground-swell 

„  ,  of  a  great  movement  for  the  reclama- 

Farmers  awaken-         .  .  ,,,.,. 

ing  to  opportunity  tion  of  the  rural  school  is  bemg  felt. 
of  rural  schools  jj^g  conviction  is  rapidly  gaining 
headway  that  the  old  type  of  rural  school  is  a  poor  in- 
vestment, and  that  no  better  investment  can  be  made 
than  rural  schools  of  the  right  type.  Farmers  them- 
selves are  beginning  to  realize  that  in  the  poor  and  ineffi- 
cient district  school  lies  one  of  the  most  fruitful  causes  of 
the  deterioration  of  the  rural  community  which  they  so 
loudly  decry.    They  are  coming  to  see  that  if  the  better 


466  BETTER   RURAL'   SCHOOLS 

families  are  to  be  kept  from  deserting  the  farms  for  the 
town,  they  must  be  supplied  with  an  opportunity  to  edu- 
cate their  children  well  in  the  country.  And  it  is  becom- 
ing clear  that  we  can  not  keep  ambitious  boys  and  girls 
on  the  farm  by  lecturing  to  them  on  the  beauties  of 
country  life  and  the  dangers  of  the  city,  while  at  the 
same  time  we  do  not  supply  them  the  opportunities  they 
crave  and  need  for  their  own  development.  The  real 
function  of  the  rural  school  is  therefore  passing  out  of 
the  realm  of  doubtful  theory,  and  becoming  a  matter 
of  a  concrete  business  and  social  investment;  in  place 
of  being  considered  a  drain  on  the  public  purse,  it  is 
being  increasingly  conceived  as  the  most  promising  in- 
strument for  the  furthering  of  all  rural  interests. 

Not  only  is  it  wholly  evident  that  rural  children  must 
be  given  a  better  and  more  comprehensive  education  than 

Education  for  farm  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^"  receiving,  but  it  is 
must  be  had  in  also  clear  that  this  training  must  be 

rural  schools  supplied  in  rural  schools,  and  not  be 

entrusted  to  the  schools  of  the  towns  and  cities.  The 
school  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  farm 
must  radiate  the  spirit  of  country  life — it  must  it- 
self be  country  life.  This  does  not  mean  that  all 
who  are  born  on  the  farm  m.ust  remain  farmers,  regard- 
less of  fitness  or  choice ;  the  spirit  of  democracy  demands 
that  all  paths  shall  be  left  open  ahead  of  every  person 
that  he  may  choose  which  he  will  follow.  But  a  very 
large  proportion  of  those  attending  the  rural  schools 
select  the  farm  as  their  occupation,  and  a  much  larger 
proportion  might  be  led  to  do  so.  It  should  be  the  great 
function  of  the  rural  school,  then,  to  educate  for  a  suc- 
cessful career  in  the  vocation  most  of  its  constituents 
will  follow. 


THE    PROMISING   FUTURE  467 

Tlie  rural  school  of  the  future  must  therefore  become 
a  dynamic  force  in  the  community,  attracting  boys  and 
Tj  ,  ,  ,  ,  girls  from  the  farms,  and  so  fitting 
future  to  attract  into  their  lives  as  to  show  the  value 
boys  and  girls  of  the  education  it  has  to  offer.     It 

must  supply  them  with  the  heritage  of  well-developed 
powers,  and  the  knowledge  and  skill  required  for  suc- 
cessful living.  It  must  uplift  every  phase  of  rural  life, 
social  and  industrial  as  well  as  intellectual.  The  rural 
school  of  the  future  can  do  this;  that  it  has  not  done 
it  in  the  past  is  in  large  part  because  it  has  never  con- 
ceived its  function  clearly.  That  this  demand  is  not  too 
great  for  the  rural  school  of  the  future  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  hundreds  of  schools  are  now  carrying  out  this 
splendid  program  of  rich  service  for  their  communities. 
These  better  schools  are  scattered  here  and  there  in  many 
states,  each  standing  as  an  example,  and  pointing  the  way 
for  others.  The  seed  has  been  planted,  and  it  is  begin- 
ning to  bear  fruit. 

This  high  ideal  for  the  rural  school  means  a  reversal 
of  our  system  of  education  in  rural  communities.  We 
have  been  running  our  educational  machinery  backward. 
Instead  of  preparing  for  agricultural  pursuits,  the  rural 
schools  have  been  so  organized  that  they  have  selected 
out  and  prepared  a  favored  few  for  the  town  high  school. 
The  many  have  been  left  to  fall  by  the  wayside  some- 
where from  the  third  to  the  fifth  grade,  because  of  the 
dry  and  formal  curriculum,  the  poor  teaching  and  the 
uninviting  surroundings.  Those  who  finally  have  reached 
the  town  high  school  are  probably  the  best  and  the  most 
ambitious  of  the  country  product.  The  high  school  has 
taken  this  choice  material  and  fitted  it  for  the  college. 
The  college  again  has  received  the  best  of  the  high-school 


468  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

product,  and  prepared  it  for  a  professional  or  a  business 
career;  few  or  none  have  returned  to  the  farms.  Thus 
our  rural  schools,  in  so  far  as  they  have  had  any  con- 
scious aim,  have  served  as  feeders  to  the  schools  that 
from  their  very  nature  have  drawn  people  away  from 
the  farm,  and  contributed  nothing  directly  to  it.  The 
rural  school  of  the  future  must  reverse  this  harmful 
process ;  it  must  so  relate  its  spirit  and  work  to  the  life 
and  vocation  of  agriculture  that  the  country  shall  not 
constantly  be  robbed  of  its  best  material  for  the  further- 
ance of  the  occupations  of  the  city. 

The  typical  rural  education  of  the  future  will  for  the 
most  part  be  conducted  in  consolidated  schools,  possibly 
Consolidated  consisting  in  many  cases  of  groups  of 

school  to  be  the  suitable  buildings,  instead  of  one  large 
typical  rural  school  building.  The  one-room  school  will 
more  and  more  suffer  from  comparison  with  consoli- 
dated schools,  and  will  come  to  be  looked  on  as  a  tempo- 
rary expedient,  ready  to  give  way  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment  to  the  more  efficient  central  school.  Country 
roads  will  be  constantly  improved  and  the  children  will 
be  conveyed  at  public  expense  to  the  consolidated  schools. 
Surrounding  these  schools  will  be  ample  grounds,  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  acres,  and  accommodating  a  cottage 
for  the  head  of  the  school.  Every  industry  carried  on 
in  the  district  will  find  some  place  in  the  curriculum  of 
the  school,  either  for  the  young,  or  for  the  older  ones 
who  will  also  use  the  school  as  a  means  for  self-improve- 
ment and  advancement.  The  school  will  be  so  closely  re- 
lated to  the  life  of  the  community  that  every  kitchen, 
barn,  dairy  and  farm  will  be  in  some  sense  a  laboratory 
for  the  school.  The  growing  crops,  the  fruits  of  the 
orchards  and  gardens,  and  the  domestic  animals  of  the 


Coiiyfcsy    of    G.    I.     Christie 

Farmers  and  farmers'  boys  judging  corn  at  an  agricultural  short  course 


I     .irtcsy   of   G.    I.    Christie 

School  children  and  progressive   farmers   meeting  the   Corn   Extension 
Train  of  Purdue,  Indiana 


THE   PROMISING   FUTURE  469 

farm  will  all  furnish  material  for  study  and  the  applica- 
tion of  lessons  taught  in  the  school. 

One  of  the  chief  concerns  of  the  rural  school  of  the 
future  will  be  the  health  of  the  children  and  the  com- 
Rural  school  to  munity.  With  the  help  of  medical  in- 
conserve  health  spection  and  expert  assistance  sent 
by  the  colleges,  universities  and  normal  schools  to  assist 
in  the  country-life  problem,  we  shall  seek  out  and  aim  to 
remedy  the  local  cause  of  ill-health  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  tragic  loss  of  life,  the  useless  sacrifice  of  health,  and 
its  accompanying  burden  of  sorrow  will  no  longer  be 
tamely  tolerated.  How  to  live  long,  happily  and  effi- 
ciently will  constitute  one  of  the  chief  lessons  of  the 
school.  The  rural  school  will  oflfer  definite  instruction  on 
the  question  of  the  daily  supply  of  food  as  it  is  raised, 
prepared  and  appetizingly  cooked.  This  will  constitute 
one  of  the  chief  problems  of  instruction  for  every  boy 
and  girl;  for  with  the  necessity  thrust  on  us  of  eating 
three  times  a  day  throughout  our  life,  and  of  being  de- 
pendent for  our  energy,  life  and  intelligence  on  our  food 
supply,  this  question  becomes  one  of  the  most  concrete 
and  important  in  education. 

Nor  will  the  rural  school  neglect  the  question  of  our 
housing.  The  architecture  of  the  country  home,  its  sani- 
p  h    1  to       tation  from  cellar  to  garret,  and  the 

promote  good  need  of  cleanliness  will  all  be  matters 

housing  q£  instruction  in  the  rural  school  of 

the  future.  It  will  show,  both  by  precept  and  example, 
the  value  of  neatness,  of  taste,  and  of  beauty  in  the  home. 
Systems  of  ventilation,  of  lighting,  of  heating,  and  modern 
devices  for  cooking  and  cleaning  will  be  important  topics 
of  instruction.  The  pupils  will  have  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  question  of  drainage  for  house  and  barn,  of 


470  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

sewerage,  of  the  disposal  of  waste,  and  the  providing  of 
a  pure  water  supply.  Sources  of  infection  in  the  home 
from  impure  water,  tubercular  milk  and  the  house  fly 
will  be  thoroughly  understood. 

The  matter  of  clothing  will  not  be  forgotten.  A  part 
of  the  course  of  the  rural  school  of  the  future  will  deal 
Dress  to  receive  "^^^^  ^^^  nature  of  fabrics,  the  mode 
attention  of  their  manufacture,  the  value  of  col- 

oring stuffs,  processes  of  cleansing  and  all  other  ques- 
tions related  to  economy  and  taste  in  dress.  Not  only 
will  the  children  be  taught  proper  standards  of  dress  and 
what  constitutes  suitable  apparel  for  various  occasions, 
but  every  girl  will  learn  how  to  cut,  fit  and  make 
with  her  own  hands  the  ordinary  clothing  for  herself 
or  any  member  of  the  family.  The  hygiene  of  clothing, 
and  the  relation  of  proper  clothing  to  health  and  free- 
dom from  disease,  will  be  thoroughly  understood.  A  sug- 
gestion of  the  need  of  such  instruction  is  had  from  the 
recent  campaign  initiated  by  medical  authorities  to  pro- 
tect children  from  the  contagion  of  infantile  paralysis 
through  the  very  simple  process  of  saving  them  from  the 
bite  of  infected  flies,  by  the  expedient  of  discouraging 
the  senseless  custom  of  allowing  children  to  go  with  bare 
legs  and  feet  exposed.  The  General  Education  Board 
is  also  waging  war  against  the  hookworm  disease  in  the 
South  through  teaching  the  necessity  of  wearing  shoes 
instead  of  going  barefoot. 

The  rural  school  of  the  future  will  make  a  very  val- 
uable and  concrete  contribution  to  the  success  of  farm- 
Rural  school  of  ^"^-  ^^™  demonstrators  of  the  Gen- 
future  to  aid  eral  Education  Board  working  in  the 
farming  South  ere  obtaining  on  their  demon- 
stration farms  in  every  state  about  double  the  yield  of 


;.-r  THE   PROMISING   FUTURE  471 

cotton  averaged  for  these  states.  Similar  results  are  ob- 
tained both  in  the  North  and  the  South  by  the  demon- 
strators for  experimentation  with  corn.  The  knowledge 
of  these  demonstrators  with  reference  to  the  selection  of 
seed  and  the  cultivation  of  soils  would,  if  universally 
applied,  fully  double  each  of  these  great  staple  crops.  It 
is  estimated  that  $240,000,000  would  be  added  to  the 
annual  profits  of  cotton  alone  in  the  South  by  this  in- 
crease. At  least  as  great  an  increase  could  be  ex- 
pected in  the  returns  from  the  corn  crop.  It  is  worth 
noticing  that  the  combined  increased  profits  of  these  two 
crops  would  easily  pay  the  current  expenses  of  the  en- 
tire public  school  system  of  the  United  States.  The 
knowledge  required  to  effect  this  result  can  easily  be  put 
into  circulation  among  the  farmers  by  thoroughly  teach- 
ing it  in  the  rural  schools.  And  even  if  many  of  the 
older  generation  of  farmers  are  impervious  to  the  new 
methods  presented,  the  coming  generation  will  reap  the 
benefits. 

The  rural  school  of  the  future  will  not,  however,  minis- 
ter to  the  economic  side  of  life  alone.  One  of  the  great- 
_      -     ,     .  est  needs  in  the  rural  community  to- 

minister  to  art  day  is  the  teaching  of  the  art  of  rec- 

and  recreation  reation.     The  labor  of  the   farm   is 

too  steady  and  monotonous,  and  too  seldom  relieved  by 
intervals  of  social  mingling  and  recreative  play.  The  rural 
school  can  provide  for  the  recreative  side  of  life  as  well 
as  training  for  the  more  serious  activities.  Some  healthy, 
happy  recreation  will  therefore  be  a  part  of  every  school 
program.  The  buildings  and  school  grounds  will  be 
equipped  as  playgrounds  and  recreation  centers  calcu- 
lated to  attract  not  alone  the  young  but  the  old  as  well. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  believe  that  under  the  stimulus  of 


472  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

such  incentive,  the  weekly  half  holiday  will  become  as 
much  an  established  custom  in  the  country  as  in  the 
cities.  It  is  true  that  there  will  be  rush  seasons  when 
this  ideal  will  be  impossible  of  realization ;  but  the  princi- 
ple is  thoroughly  sound  and  needs  to  be  introduced  as  a 
part  of  the  system  of  rural  life,  if  rural  conditions  are 
to  be  made  equally  favorable  with  those  of  the  town. 

The  rural  school  of  the  future  will  also  have  for  an 
important  part  of  its  work  the  development  of  a  sense 
To  cultivate  the  ^0^  the  beautiful.  The  schoolhouses 
esthetic  impulse  which  have  been  the  plague  spots  of 
ugliness  scattered  over  our  fair  land  are  giving  way  to 
attractive,  well-equipped  buildings  set  in  beautifully  ar- 
ranged grounds.  The  instruction  of  the  rural  school, 
as  well  as  its  example,  will  show  the  possibilities  of  beau- 
tifying the  home  and  its  surroundings.  Pupils  taught 
the  principles  of  landscape  gardening  and  the  decoration 
of  their  home  grounds  will  use  the  home  place  as  a  labo- 
ratory for  carrying  out  the  principles  presented  and  ex- 
emplified in  the  school.  As  a  part  of  the  demand  of  hu- 
man nature  for  beauty,  music  and  art  will  be  taught  in 
the  rural  school,  and  every  rural  school  will  have  its 
musical  instruments,  its  orchestra  and  various  choruses. 

Finally,  the  rural  school  of  the  future  will  constitute 
a  library  center  for  its  community.  Here  will  be  gath- 
The  rural  school  ^^^^  ^"  adequate  supply  of  the  world's 
to  become  a  best    books    and    appropriate    maga- 

^^^'^^^'^  zines.    In  addition  to  works  related  to 

the  farm  and  the  home,  these  books  will  need  to  cover  a 
wide  range  of  interests ;  for  the  farmer  and  his  family 
must  have  wider  intellectual  interests  than  those  that 
deal  only  with  their  vocation.  Therefore  literature,  his- 
tory, science,  art  and  poetry  will  be  freely  represented  on 


/HE    PROMISING   FUTURE  473 

the  shelves  of  the  neighborhood  library.  The  standard 
magazines  will  find  their  way  regularly  to  the  reading 
table  of  the  school  and  thence  be  distributed  to  the  fire- 
sides of  the  neighborhood. 

When  these  conditions  have  been  achieved,  the  rural 
school  will  no  longer  be  obliged  to   receive  relatively 

■D  ,  ,  1  J.  uneducated  and  inexperienced  teach- 
Rural  schools  to  / 

secure  better  ers,  and  break  them  m  for  town  posi- 

teachers  tions.     For  the  rural  school  will  be 

fully  as  desirable  a  place  to  teach  as  the  town  school,  and 
will  pay  as  high  salaries.  May  we  not  even  hope  that  the 
rural  school  of  the  future,  because  of  its  pleasant  sur- 
roundings, the  concreteness  of  its  work,  and  the  earnest- 
ness and  responsiveness  of  its  pupils,  will  be  able  to  ob- 
tain "the  choicest  and  most  able  from  among  all  our  teach- 
ers ?  Will  not  the  graduates  of  colleges,  universities  and 
agricultural  schools  seek  rural  instead  of  city  positions 
because  of  the  peculiar  compensations  the  country  has 
to  offer  ?  Some  such  redistribution  of  our  teaching  force 
is  sure  to  take  place  when  the  rural  school  is  raised  to 
the  plane  it  is  destined  to  occupy. 

If  all  this  prophecy  for  the  rural  school  of  the  future 
seems  much  of  a  dream,  let  us  pause  to  realize  that  it 
is  a  dream  that  must  come  true;  else  the  rural  life  of 
our  country  is  doomed.  For  all  these  things  are  now 
given  freely  to  the  town  and  city  child.  He  has  every 
advantage  we  have  asked  for  the  country  child.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  rural  boys  and  girls  should  not  en- 
joy similar  advantages,  except  that  they  have  never  yet 
had  them,  and  it  is  hard  to  break  away  from  old  stand- 
ards and  customs. 

If  it  is  said  that  such  a  future  for  rural  education  is 
impossible  because  of  its  cost,  it  may  be  answered  that 


474  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

this  is  a  futile  and  senseless  argument.  For  cost  is,  after 
all,  relative  to  returns ;  and  there  is  no  manner  of  doubt 
Rural  schools  can     but   that    if   twice    as    much    money 

and  must  accom-  -wrere  invested  in  rural  education  as 
push  these  things      .  ,  ,.  .       , 

IS  now  done,  the  additional  money,  if 

wisely  spent,  would  be  returned  to  the  community  in  dol- 
lars and  cents,  with  a  hundredfold  of  interest  added. 
The  farmers  could  abundantly  afford  to  pay  for  better 
schools  as  a  business  investment,  did  they  care  nothing 
for  the  education  of  their  children.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated by  competent  authority  that  the  railroads  could 
easily  pay  for  an  entire  system  of  excellent  rural  schools 
out  of  the  added  traffic  that  would  result  if  these  schools 
were  made  thoroughly  agricultural  and  industrial;  and 
also  that  the  group  of  manufacturers  selling  products 
used  on  the  farm,  or  the  group  of  merchants  dependent 
on  farm  trade  could  afford  to  support  an  efficient  system 
of  rural  schools  for  the  additional  business  growing  out 
of  the  greater  prosperity  of  farmers  under  such  educa- 
tional conditions. 

True,  none  of  these  financial  interests  is  likely  to  un- 
dertake the  support  of  the  rural  schools;  nor  do  we 
Rural  schools  a  want  them  to.  But  the  facts  go  to 
good  investment  show  that  our  greatest  problem  in  re- 
organizing the  rural  schools  is  not  one  of  money.  Better 
rural  schools  are  one  of  the  best  possible  economic 
investments ;  and  there  is  always  money  available  for  a 
good  investment.  Further,  the  recent  tendency  toward 
state  aid  for  rural  schools  bids  fair  so  to  equalize  the 
burden  of  their  support  that  none  need  suffer  from  addi- 
tional expense.  The  really  great  problem  now  confront- 
ing us  is  a  social  problem — that  of  arousing  the  constit- 
uency of  the  rural  schools,  showing  them  the  opportuni- 


THE   PROMISING   FUTURE  475 

ties  and  possibilities  that  lie  just  ahead,  and  guiding  in 
a  wise  movement  for  better  conditions.  We  need  to  wage 
a  campaign  of  education  for  better  rural  schools.  Let  us 
next  consider  some  of  the  means  by  which  these  results 
may  be  accomplished. 


FOR  teachers'  discussion  AND  STUDY 

1.  What  do  you  feel  is  the  future  of  the  rural  schools 
in  your  region?  Will  they  develop  to  match  the  best  of 
the  rural  schools  described  in  the  text,  or  remain  for  a 
time  on  a  low  plane  of  efficiency?  If  the  latter,  what 
factors  are  lacking  to  insure  progress? 

2.  Do  you  believe  that  rural  education  in  general  can 
ever  be  made  to  approximate  or  equal  town  or  city  edu- 
cation? If  not,  what  will  be  the  ultimate  effect  on  the 
farming  industry? 

3.  Do  you  think  the  chapter  overemphasizes  the  in- 
fluence of  rural  education  on  the  country-life  move- 
ment ?  What  is  the  country-life  movement  ?  What  forces 
are  back  of  it?  What  is  its  object?  When  did  it  start? 

4.  What  does  your  state  require  in  the  way  of  medi- 
cal inspection  in  schools?  Do  you  think  medical  inspec- 
tion is  practicable  in  rural  schools?  Where  is  it  needed 
most,  in  town  or  country  schools? 

5.  What  are  the  great  national  agencies  now  at  work 
seeking  to  improve  the  conditions  of  rural  life  and  educa- 
tion?   How  much  do  you  know  of  their  work? 

6.  Would  you  be  able  to  prove  to  farmers  that  more 
money  wisely  invested  in  rural  education  would  yield 
large  financial  returns? 


CHAPTER  XXX 


PRESENT  OPPORTUNITIES 


None  can  doubt  that  the  movement  for  better  rural 
schools  is  well  begun,  and  the  outlook  for  the  future  full 
of  promise.  Yet  the  present  has  its  pressing  duties  and 
opportunities.  For  no  great  cause  is  won  in  a  day,  nor 
are  customs  and  standards  that  have  prevailed  for  a 
century  dropped  in  a  moment.  Great  movements  and 
deep-seated  reforms  never  come  by  chance.  They  are  al- 
ways produced  by  adequate  causes, — ^by  forces  that  are 
consciously  set  in  motion  and  carefully  administered. 
There  is  still  a  great  amount  of  social  inertia  to  over- 
come, and  of  ignorance  and  selfishness  to  be  removed, 
before  rural  education  will  come  fully  into  its  own. 

Indifference  to  educational  needs  and  advantages  is 
still  the  rule  in  many  communities.  Prejudice  yet  ob- 
tains in  hundreds  of  districts  not  only  against  the  con- 
solidation of  schools,  but  against  all  proposed  improve- 
ments. 

These  conditions  must  be  wisely  and  courageously  met. 

They  can  not  be  overcome  by  fine  theories,  nor  by  the 

appointment  of  educational  commis- 

Need  of  wise  action  n^i  •         r     •      i  jt 

sions.     ihe  passmg  of  wise  laws  and 

adopting  of  helpful  resolutions  may  be  a  step  in  the  right 

direction,  but  without  the  winning  of  the  people  most 

concerned,  all  these  things  will  prove  futile  and  fruitless. 

The  reformation  now  being  sought  in  rural  education  will 

476 


PRESENT   OPPORTUNITIES  477 

require  hand-to-hand  work,  and  almost  a  house-to-house 

canvass  to  instruct,  inform,  convince  and  convert.     A 

doubter  must  be  persuaded  here  and  a  skeptic  won  over 

there ;  the  stingy  man  must  be  stirred  into  seeing  greater 

value  in  his  children  and  their  future  than  in  his  stock 

and  his  farm.    Now  an  obstacle  will  need  to  be  removed 

from  the  way  of  progress,  and  again  enthusiasm  will  have 

to    be    created    and    maintained.      Movements    already 

started  must  be  cherished;  projects  that  advance  but 

slowly  must  be  hastened,  steps  taken  in  wrong  directions 

checked,  and  every  phase  of  the  situation  watched  with 

the  greatest  wisdom  and  care. 

This  is  to  say  that  every  agency  now  interested  in  the 

upbuilding  of  rural  life  and  the  better  education  of  rural 

youth  must  keep  devotedly  at  work; 
All  forces  needed      r        ,.  j  i,  1      u 

for    the    advance    has    only    begun. 

There  is  hardly  a  stage  of  the  rural-school  progress 
that  is  not  still  in  its  infancy.  Except  in  rare  instances, 
rural  schools  are  yet  far  behind  urban  schools,  and  with 
the  best  that  can  be  done,  they  will  remain  so  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  for  years  to  come. 

Many  discouragements  will  be  met  by  those  seeking 
to  advance  rural  education.  School  patrons  will  still 
often  remain  blind  to  the  best  interests  of  themselves 
and  their  children.  Men  who  ought  to  be  the  most  ar- 
dent promoters  of  consolidation  and  the  reorganized  cur- 
riculum will  stand  in  its  way.  Those  who  ought  to  de- 
mand better  teachers  and  offer  better  pay  will  do  neither. 
Legislatures  that  should  provide  every  opportunity  for 
the  betterment  of  the  rural  schools  will  now  and  then 
fail  in  their  duty.  Teachers  who,  because  of  their  re- 
lation to  the  problem,  might  be  the  natural  leaders  in 
the  new  movement  will  in  some  instances  fail  to  compre- 


478  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

hend  its  significance,  and  in  others  will  consider  it  not 
worth  while  to  employ  the  efforts  required  for  its  pro- 
motion. Mistakes  that  have  already  been  made  in  the 
erection  of  unsuitable  buildings  or  in  locating  them  in 
wrong  positions  will  have  to  be  rectified.  Inadequate 
curricula  will  need  be  enriched  and  reorganized.  Faulty 
laws  bearing  on  the  preparation  and  compensation  of 
teachers  must  be  repealed  and  better  ones  passed  in 
their  place.  In  short,  the  whole  field  of  rural  educa- 
tion needs  to  be  surveyed  with  the  greatest  wisdom  and 
care,  and  some  atonement  made  for  past  neglect  through 
the  rapidity  and  certainty  of  future  progress. 

One  of  the  gravest  dangers  bearing  on  rural  school 
reorganization  is  that  many  who  ought  to  be  leaders  in 
Dangers  from  ^^^  movement  will  become  disheart- 

discouragement  ened  and  give  up  the  work  as  hope- 

less. One  superintendent  recently  confessed  that  he  was 
discouraged  over  the  outlook  for  consolidation  and  had 
given  up  all  attempts  to  bring  it  about.  Another  admit- 
ted that  he  feared  the  uncertainty  of  tenure  in  his  office 
if  he  advertised  the  matter  of  rural-school  improvement, 
and  was  hence  keeping  quiet  on  the  subject.  In  both 
of  these  instances,  however,  adjoining  counties  had  made 
splendid  progress  under  the  leadership  of  enthusiastic, 
wise  and  daring  superintendents.  There  is  no  place  in 
the  struggle  that  is  now  on  for  faint-heartedness,  or  lack 
of  faith.  The  "quitter"  is  not  only  a  dead  load;  he  is 
an  enemy  to  progress,  for  his  pessimism  is  contagious. 

A  second  danger  is  that  other  workers  who  have  seen 

necessary  reforms  well  started  in  their  community  may 

think   that   all   is   accomplished   and 

Dangers  from  cease    their    vigilance    and    activity. 

taking  success  ^,  .         .      ,       ?„  , 

for  granted  This  attitude  will  be  sure  to  mean  re- 


PRESENT   OPPORTUNITIES  479 

trogression  wherever  it  obtains.  For  any  social  or  edu- 
cational movement,  particularly  if  it  is  but  little  under- 
stood, must  be  carefully  protected  and  nurtured  until  it 
is  well  established.  Objections  must  be  met,  mistakes 
remedied  and  new  lines  of  advancement  initiated.  Mis- 
conceptions must  be  removed,  and  valid  criticisms 
squarely  and  honestly  answered.  For  example,  where 
the  transportation  system  in  consolidated  schools  is  in- 
adequate, where  children  are  kept  too  long  in  the  school 
wagons,  or  where  any  other  conditions  obtain  which 
may  rightly  be  questioned,  the  matter  must  be  fairly  con- 
sidered and  remedies  found  which  will  remove  the  ob- 
jections. If  it  is  found  that  such  new  subjects  as  agri- 
culture, manual  training  and  domestic  science  are  being 
so  poorly  taught  as  to  result  in  but  little  value,  the  prob- 
lem must  be  mastered  as  to  how  to  remove  these  adverse 
conditions,  and  not  allow  reproach  to  fall  on  a  worthy 
system  of  instruction  because  of  minor  difficulties. 

If  here  and  there  a  patron  wishes  to  go  back  to  the 
old  district  school  and  the  old  curriculum  of  the  "three 
All  objections  to  ^'s/'  the  reasons  for  his  objections 
be  met  fairly  to  the  new  system  should  be  consci- 

entiously sought  and  courteously  met.  One  such 
man  who  recently  insisted  that  an  abandoned  school 
be  reopened,  was  approached  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent to  know  the  cause  of  his  hostile  attitude. 
He  at  first  evaded  the  question,  but  on  pressure  finally 
admitted  that  it  was  because  he  owned  a  large  farm  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  abandoned  school  and  feared  that  its 
rental  value  might  be  reduced  by  having  no  school  near 
at  hand.  He  was  also  frank  in  saying  that  were  the 
abandoned  school  reopened  he  would  not  send  his  own 
children  to  the  school,  but  would  continue  them  in  a 


48o  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

consolidated  school  near  by.  It  was  not  difficult,  hav- 
ing this  bit  of  information  in  hand,  to  persuade  him 
that  his  position  was  untenable,  and  hence  to  remove 
the  antagonistic  attitude  that  might  have  proved  a  bar- 
rier in  the  way  of  further  progress  in  his  district. 

The  most  potent  agency  in  the  promotion  of  rural- 
school  progress  in  the  future  will  be  the  teachers,  pro- 
Teachers  the  most  viding  they  prove  equal  to  their  task, 
powerful  factor  and  measure  up  to  their  responsibil- 

ity. The  teachers  can  cause  the  movement  toward  the 
new  type  of  rural  education  to  advance  very  rapidly,  or 
they  can  delay  it  for  a  generation  by  their  indifference. 
True  it  is  that  progress  is  sure  to  come,  even  if  we  must 
wait  for  another  generation  of  teachers  to  carry  it  on,  or 
if  we  must  drop  out  as  inefficient  those  that  refuse  to 
adjust  themselves  to  the  new  movement  and  supply 
their  places  with  more  progressive  or  devoted  teachers. 
But  the  teachers  of  the  present  confront  an  opportunity 
and  a  responsibility  never  before  presented  to  the  rural 
teacher  of  this  country.  For  the  old  standards  are  pass- 
ing away  and  new  ideals  are  arising.  The  old-time  teach- 
er was  only  required  to  carry  out  a  simple  school  pro- 
cedure established  generations  before  his  time.  The  pres- 
ent-day teacher  has  pressed  on  him  the  responsibility  of 
helping  to  organize  and  promote  a  new  movement  in  rural 
education. 

The  teacher  is  in  immediate  contact  with  pupils  and  pa- 
trons, hence  is  the  best  medium  through  which  informa- 
tion and  suggestions  can  reach  the  constituency  of  the 
rural  schools.  He  is  looked  on  as  a  specialist,  and  his 
advice  is  sought  and  his  judgment  taken  on  all  educa- 
tional questions.  The  teacher's  attitude  is  therefore  very 
largely  a  determining  factor  in  every  project  for  better- 


PRESENT    OPPORTUNITIES  481 

ing  the  rural  schools.  If  the  teachers  are  indifferent,  it 
will  be  hard  to  interest  the  patrons.  If  they  are  unin- 
formed, it  will  be  difficult  to  enlighten  the  people.  If 
they  are  hostile,  the  people  will  hardly  be  friendly  to 
new  policies. 

One  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  promotion  of  rural- 
school  progress  is  information.  What  is  desirable  and 
The  public  require  possible,  the  lines  of  advance  actually 
information  being  carried  out  in  the  best  rural 

schools,  is  the  most  effective  argument  with  patrons  and 
school  officers.  In  many  conservative  and  backward  dis- 
tricts, the  rural  people  are  in  the  main  intelligent,  but 
busied  with  their  own  affairs  and  centered  on  their  own 
interests;  they  do  not  know  the  remarkable  progress 
already  achieved  in  communities  outside  their  own  re- 
gion. What  they  need  is  to  have  this  knowledge  brought 
to  them  in  a  concrete  and  an  effective  manner.  They 
need  to  have  placed  before  them  practical  ideals  based 
on  actual  accomplishment  under  conditions  similar  to 
their  own.  Faultfinding,  adverse  criticism  and  accusa- 
tions of  obstinacy  and  narrowness  are  ordinarily  not 
helpful  influences ;  the  better  method  is  constructive,  help- 
ful criticism  in  the  form  of  plans  and  projects  already 
tried  and  proved  feasible. 

If  teachers  are  to  assume  the  role  of  directors  and 

leaders  of  public  opinion  in  their  communities,  it  is  evi- 

-,      ,  ^  dent  that  they  must  first  of  all  thor- 

ieacners  must  .  ,  , 

themselves  be  oughjy    mform    themselves    on    all 

informed  questions  of  rural  progress  and  par- 

ticularly of  rural  education.  They  must  know  what  is 
being  done  in  the  leading  types  of  rural  schools  in  other 
places.  They  must  be  familiar  with  the  methods  that 
are  being  tried,  the  successes  that  are  being  achieved. 


482  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

and  the  difficulties  that  are  being  met.  If  teachers  are  to 
serve  as  leaders,  they  must  realize  that  the  blind  can  noi 
lead  the  blind.  If  they  are  to  promote  instruction  in  agri- 
culture and  make  it  a  practical,  concrete  and  helpful  fac- 
tor in  the  school  and  the  community,  they  must  study 
the  subject  and  enter  fully  into  its  spirit.  If  they  are  to 
teach  or  oversee  the  teaching  of  manual  training,  they 
must  know  the  practise  of  this  work.  So  also  if  they 
are  to  direct  in  domestic  science,  they  must  have  mastered 
its  principles  and  its  technique. 

Teachers  should  be  well  informed  on  the  matter  of 
school  buildings  and  equipment.  They  should  know  the 
Knowledge  of  principles   governing  the   method   of 

school  buildings  ventilation,  heating,  lighting  and  the 
sanitation  of  their  schoolhouses.  This  is  not  because 
they  will  ordinarily  be  responsible  for  finally  proposing 
or  accepting  the  plans  for  new  school  buildings,  but  be- 
cause their  influence  and  assistance  are  required  by  their 
superior  officers  to  help  shape  public  sentiment  on  these 
questions. 

Similarly,  teachers  should  keep  in  close  relation  with 
the  new  legislation  now  taking  place  throughout  the 
Knowledge  of  new  country  favoring  the  advancement  of 
legislation  rural  education,  not  because  teachers 

will  be  members  of  legislatures,  but  because  their  influence 
and  advice  should  be  influential  in  promoting  sentiment 
in  their  communities  looking  toward  progress  through 
legislative  action. 

Particularly  should  teachers  be  thoroughly  informed 
on  the  question  of  consolidation  of  rural  schools.  They 
Knowledge  of  should  know  its  history  and  its  prog- 

consolidation  ress  to  date.     They  should  study  the 

objections  that  are  to  be  met  and  how  they  are  to  be 


PRESENT   OPPORTUNITIES  483 

overcome.  They  should  be  able  to  form  an  accurate 
estimate  of  the  relative  cost  of  the  consolidated  and  the 
district  school  systems  in  their  respective  communities. 
One  teacher  who  had  this  knowledge  was  able  to  show 
an  objecting  farmer  that  his  share  of  additional  tax  for 
a  new  consolidated  building  would  be  seventy-two  cents 
a  year  for  the  next  ten  years.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that 
he  became  a  warm  advocate  of  the  project.  Teachers 
should  know  the  relation  of  consolidation  to  roads  and 
the  transportation  problem.  Again,  this  knowledge  is 
required,  not  that  teachers  may  actually  propose  and 
carry  through  the  plans  for  consolidation  in  their  re- 
spective communities,  but  because  the  county  superin- 
tendent will  require  their  assistance  in  shaping  the  senti- 
ment in  their  districts  for  consolidation. 

It  is  evident  from  these  considerations  that  the  teacher 
occupies  a  strategic  position  in  the  matter  of  rural-school 
progress,  and  that  as  the  teachers  take  hold  of  the  prob- 
lem, so  largely  will  its  success  be  measured  in  the  imme- 
diate future. 

County  superintendents  and  their  assistants  will  in 
the  main  have  thrust  on  them  the  burden  of  taking  the 
initiative  in  rural-school  progress, 
county  ^up^iin-  True,  state  superintendents  and  other 
tendent  in  rural  higher  officials  help  to  plan  and  out- 
^  line    various    projects,    but    it    re- 

mains for  the  county  superintendent  to  introduce  these 
plans  to  the  people.  He  must  gain  their  cooperation  and 
organize  the  forces  that  shall  put  the  new  policies  into 
operation.  He  and  his  teachers  are  the  ones  to  meet  the 
objections  at  first  hand.  They  are  obliged  to  make  a 
canvass  of  the  rural  constituency,  and  through  its  in- 
fluence insure  the  success  of  the  project  or  stand  respon- 


484  BETTER  RURAL   SCHOOLS 

sible  for  its  failure.  For  none  of  the  projects  proposed 
for  the  betterment  of  rural  schools  can  be  introduced  by 
so  large  a  unit  as  a  state ;  forward  steps  will  be  by  coun- 
ties, townships  and  school  districts. 

County  superintendents  and  all  who  work  under  them 
therefore  need  to  be  specialists  in  rural  life  and  condi- 

„        .  ^     J    ^  tions.    If  they  are  not  such  when  they 

Superintendents  ■'  : 

should  be  rural  assume  ofnce,  they  should  make  this 

specialists  their     special     and    constant    study. 

They  ought  to  be  professional  educators  in  the  high- 
est sense  of  the  term,  and  possess  an  exceptional  de- 
gree of  enthusiasm,  and  a  passion  for  service.  They 
will  be  required  to  be  preeminently  sympathetic  and 
thorough  students  of  the  new  education,  and  the  many 
plans  now  being  proposed  for  the  advancement  of  rural 
schools.  They  must  be  able  to  judge  which  of  these  plans 
will  prove  successful  under  the  conditions  obtaining  in 
their  own  counties,  and  which  ones,  from  the  nature  of 
things,  would  of  necessity  prove  a  failure.  They  can 
never  afford  to  be  faddists ;  for  some  wild  project  reck- 
lessly taken  up  may  so  lose  the  confidence  of  the  public 
as  to  delay  real  progress  for  many  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  county  superintendent  must 
not  be  indifferent  to  the  movement  in  rural  education 
No  place  for  the  which  is  now  gathering  headway 
ultraconservative  throughout  the  nation.  Undue  con- 
servatism or  "fogyism"  is  fatal  to  all  vital  quali- 
ties of  leadership.  This  office  is  no  place  for  the 
timid  nor  for  those  who  care  more  for  political  posi- 
tion than  for  measuring  up  to  duty  and  opportunity.  No 
person  who  is  not  willing  to  stake  both  his  professional 
reputation  and  his  official  position  on  the  most  fruitful 


PRESENT   OPPORTUNITIES  485 

projects  and  promising  improvements  available  has  any 
business  seeking  or  occupying  this  office. 

The  state  superintendents,  with  their  rural-school  su- 
pervisors and  similar  officers,  have  an  unusual  opportu- 
nity at  present  and  must  shoulder  a 
stafe^s^uperintend-  responsibility.  They  are  the  natural 
ent  and  his  leaders  and  commanders  of  the  great 

supervisors  r  1      1,     1  1  t-u 

*^  army  of  rural-school  workers.    They 

should  possess  the  critical  judgment,  the  enthusiasm,  and 
the  technical  and  scientific  knowledge  requisite  for  the 
successful  direction  of  this  army.  It  is  theirs  to  help 
plan  legislation,  to  aid  in  the  introduction  of  new  projects 
in  their  states,  and  to  unify  and  secure  cooperation  from 
all  the  agencies  working  under  them.  How  great  the  in- 
fluence of  these  superior  officers  is  seen  in  the  number 
of  states  at  present  making  remarkable  progress  in  rural 
education  under  the  leadership,  stimulus  and  guidance 
of  these  higher  officials. 

Outside  of  these  regularly  constituted  educational 
agencies  is  another  group  of  powerful  factors  able  to 
wield  a  large  influence  for  the  upbuilding  of  rural 
life  and  schools. 

The  press  of  the  country  is  the  greatest  single  force  in 
molding  public  sentiment,  and  its  support  of  any  great 
Influence  of  the  rnovemtnt  will  go  far  toward  insur- 
press  for  rural  ing  its  success.    The  press  is  becom- 

education  jjjg  interested  in  the  question  of  rural 

education;  it  will  become  still  more  interested  as  the 
movement  for  better  schools  advances.  No  wiser  policy 
could  be  pursued  than  for  educators  to  enlist  to  the  full- 
est extent  the  cooperation  of  the  press  in  spreading  in- 
formation and  shaping  opinion.    Nor  is  it  the  metropoli- 


486  BETTER   RURAL    SCHOOLS 

tan  press  alone  that  should  be  utilized.  Every  county 
newspaper  is  a  source  of  power  for  the  upbuilding  of 
rural  schools;  and  every  such  paper  is  glad  to  lend  its 
assistance  to  this  end,  for  its  constituency  is  in  the  main 
from  among  the  rural  people.  County  superintendents 
and  rural  teachers  could  make  far  more  use  than  they 
do  of  the  local  papers  of  their  communities  in  advancing 
the  campaign  for  better  rural  schools.  Weekly  letters 
telling  of  the  school  activities,  noting  improvements, 
speaking  of  any  special  lines  of  work  and  suggesting 
needed  improvement  are  sure  to  be  read  eagerly,  and 
will  do  much  to  interest  the  community  in  the  school. 

Another  great  influence  recently  entering  into  the  field 
of  rural  education  is  that  of  the  federal  government. 
Part  taken  by  the  through  the  Bureau  of  Education  and 
federal  government  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture.  Each  of 
these  bureaus  maintains  specialists  in  rural  education  who 
devote  their  time  to  the  study  of  rural  educational  prob- 
lems and  the  distribution  of  information  and  suggestions 
relative  to  rural  schools.  The  careful  researches  made 
by  George  W.  Knorr  of  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture  on  the 
matter  of  rural  school  consolidation  constituted  the  first 
extensive  study  attempted.  His  published  bulletins  have 
been  of  the  greatest  value  to  all  students  of  rural  condi- 
tions. The  federal  Bureau  of  Education  has  recently 
devoted  a  large  amount  of  time  to  the  study  of  rural 
schools  and  the  spreading  of  information  to  all  rural 
workers.  Many  of  the  bulletins  on  rural  education  pub- 
lished during  the  last  few  years  and  freely  distributed 
to  all  who  are  interested  have  been  a  fruitful  guide  and 
source  of  suggestion  to  teachers.  Monahan's  recent 
monograph  on  the  status  of  rural  education  contains  much 
information    not    available    elsewhere.      Commissioner 


PRESENT   OPPORTUNITIES  4B7 

Claxton  has,  in  addition,  enlisted  the  cooperation  of  many 
speciahsts  not  directly  connected  with  the  federal  bu- 
reau, and  his  office  serves,  through  its  published  bulle- 
tins, as  a  clearing-house  for  educational  information 
coming  from  these  workers.  Besides  these  important 
lines  of  work,  the  bureau  is  sending  out  weekly  news 
items  and  suggestions  that  are  published,  hence  dis- 
tributed to  millions  of  readers,  thus  unifying  and  direct- 
ing educational  sentiment  in  a  way  and  on  a  scale  never 
before  attempted. 

All  these  things  are  a  cause  for  confidence  anji  hope. 
The  day  of  the  rural  school  is  dawning.  The  cause  is 
great  enough  to  enlist  the  choicest 
minds  and  hearts  of  the  age ;  it  is  the 
cause  of  six  millions  of  America's  most  deserving  boys 
and  girls.  More  than  this,  it  is  the  cause  of  the  whole 
future  of  American  rural  life.  It  remains  with  us,  the 
workers  of  the  present,  to  determine  when  the  cause  of 
rural  education  shall  triumph ;  for  triumph  it  must  sooner 
or  later.  It  is  possible  for  the  next  decade  to  see  the 
virtual  reorganization  of  the  rural  school  system  if  all 
stand  ready  to  do  their  part. 


FOR  TEACHERS*  DISCUSSION  AND  STUDY 

1.  What  are  the  most  pressing  things  that  need  now 
to  be  done  in  your  community  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
rural  schools?  Make  a  list  of  them  and  decide  how 
many  of  them  you  can  personally  advance. 

2.  Do  you  know  of  any  projects  for  school  improve- 
ment that  have  been  defeated  by  unwise  promotion  by 
teacher  or  official  who  lacked  either  tact  or  information  ? 

3.  In  how  far  can  teachers  prove  a  factor  in  influenc- 


488  BETTER   RURAL   SCHOOLS 

ing  school  legislation?    In  furthering  consolidation?    In 
introducing  a  stronger  curriculum? 

4.  How  well  are  you  informed  on  the  rural-school 
movement  and  its  needs?  Will  you  look  over  the  list 
of  book  titles  following  this  chapter  and  see  whether 
there  are  not  a  number  that  you  should  read?  How 
would  you  rate  your  professional  interest? 

5.  Have  you  ever  tried  to  use  local  papers  as  a  means 
of  interesting  your  community  in  school  affairs?  Do 
your  papers  welcome  such  matter  in  their  columns  ? 

6.  What,  in  general,  has  been  the  effect  of  reading 
this  book  on  your  attitude  toward  rural  education  and 
your  efficiency  in  teaching  ?  Will  yours  be  a  better  rural 
school  for  the  study  you  have  made  on  the  subject? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


No  attempt  has  been  made  to  offer  a  complete  bibliog- 
raphy on  the  rural  school.  Indeed  a  bibliography  that 
would  include  all  the  titles  now  available  on  this  subject 
would  occupy  well-nigh  as  much  space  as  that  required 
by  the  entire  volume.  The  student  entering  on  the  study 
of  this  rich  field  will,  however,  find  a  valuable  guide  to 
fundamental  material  in  the  titles  that  follow.  It  can  not 
be  too  strongly  urged  on  teachers  that  they  make  abun- 
dant use  of  the  various  bulletins  issued:  (i)  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C. ;  (2)  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  and  (3)  by  the  agricultural  colleges, 
especially  the  ones  of  their  home  states.  Nearly  all  of 
these  bulletins  are  sent  free  on  request,  and  the  few  that 
are  sold  usually  cost  not  more  than  ten  cents.  These 
pamphlets  are  clearly  written  in  untechnical  language 
and  put  the  knowledge  of  great  specialists  at  the  service 
of  teachers.  Every  teacher  should  at  least  write  to  each 
of  the  three  sources  mentioned,  asking  for  a  list  of  publi- 
cations for  free  or  paid  distribution. 


491 


493  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


GENERAL  REFERENCES  ON  RURAL  LIFE 

Bailey,  L.  H. — The  Country  Life  Movement.  Bailey 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  movement  he  so  well 
describes  in  this  excellent  volume. 

Bailey,  L.  H. — The  Farmer  and  the  State.  Especially 
valuable  as  a  basis  for  discussion  at  farmers' 
meetings. 

Bailey,  L.  H. — The  Training  of  Farmers.  Treats  of 
the  public  school  and  higher  institutions  in  the 
training  of  farmers. 

Butterfield,  K.  L. — Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.  Pub- 
lished in  1908,  but  probably  still  the  best  analysis 
of  rural  social  conditions. 

Butterfield,  K.  L. — The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural 
Problem. 

Carney,  Mabel — Country  Life  and  the  Country  School. 
A  helpful  book,  abundantly  illustrated. 

Carver,  T.  N. — Principles  of  Rural  Economics.  A  strong 
presentation  of  the  economic  problems  confront- 
ing the  agriculturalist. 

Country  Life,  report  of  commission.  The  gov- 
ernment printing  office,  Washington,  D.  C.  (loc.) 
This  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  important 
publication  available  on  rural  life  and  the  factors 
required  for  its  improvement. 

Fiske,  W.  G. — The  Challenge  of  the  Country.  A  help- 
ful work,  dealing  with  rural  social,  educational 
and  religious  conditions. 

McKeever,  W.  A. — The  Farm  Boys  and  Girls. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  493 


REFERENCES    ON    THE    ORGANIZATION    AND    WORK    OF    THE 
RURAL   SCHOOL 

Allen,  W.  H. — Civics  and  Health.  An  excellent  treat- 
ment of  the  physical  basis  of  citizenship  and 
health. 

Ayres,  L.  p. — Open  Air  Schools.  Shows  the  effects  of 
fresh  air  on  physical  and  mental  development  in 
school  children. 

BagleYjW.  C. — School  and  Class-Room  Management.  A 
good  statement  of  the  fundamental  principles  un- 
derlying the  management  of  a  school. 

Bancroft,  J.  H. — Games  for  the  Playground,  Home  and 
School.  The  most  valuable  collection  of  games 
and  plays  now  available  for  the  teacher. 

Betts,  G.  H. — New  Ideals  in  Rural  Schools.  A  brief 
comprehensive  statement  of  rural-school  condi- 
•    tions  and  needs. 

Betts,  G.  H. — The  Recitation.  Probably  the  simplest  and 
most  helpful  discussion  of  this  subject  yet  pub- 
lished. 

Blair,  F.  G. — One-Room  and  Village  Schools  in  Illinois. 
Office  of  State  Superintendent,  Springfield,  111. 
(Circ.  No.  65.  Free.)  Contains  much  highly  sug- 
gestive and  useful  information  relative  to  improv- 
ing schoolhouses  and  their  equipment. 

BuRBANK,  L. — The  Training  of  the  Human  Plant.  This 
excellent  little  book  is  an  attempt  to  apply  the 
scientific  principles  underlying  his  work  with 
plants  to  the  education  of  the  child. 


494  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CocKEFAiR,  E.  A. — A  Correlated  Course  of  Study  in 
Agriculture,  Geography  and  Physiology  for  Rural 
Schools.  Special  Bulletin,  State  Normal  School, 
Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.  (Free.)  Contains  sixty- 
three  pages  of  outlines  and  discussion. 

CoE,  G.  A. — Education  in  Religion  and  Morals.  A  very 
suggestive  and  inspiring  book  dealing  with  the 
relation  of  morals  and  religion  to  the  broader  field 
of  education. 

CoLEGROVE,  C.  P. — The  Teacher  and  the  School.  The 
text  discusses  a  wide  range  of  topics  dealing  with 
organization,  administration  and  teaching  of  rural 
schools. 

CoNOVER,  James  P. — Personality  in  Education.  This  vol- 
ume shows  the  important  relation  of  a  pleasing 
and  attractive  personality  to  good  order,  study  and 
class  work  in  the  schoolroom. 

Crosby  and  Howe — Free  Publications  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture;  classified  for  teachers. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
^  ington,  D.  C.     (Free.)     Contains  lists  on  agricul- 

ture, domestic  science,  geography,  hygiene,  physi- 
ology, entomology,  etc. 

CuBBERLY,  E.  P. — Changing  Conceptions  of  Education. 
A  brief  clear  statement  of  the  growth  of  modern 
educational  ideals  in  the  United  States. 

CuBBERLY,  E.  P. — Improvement  of  the  Rural  Schools.  A 
brief  and  forceful  discussion  of  reforms  needea 
to  place  rural  education  on  a  rational  basis. 

Curtis,  H.  T. — The  Reorganized  School  Playground. 
Bulletin,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C.  An  excellent  discussion  with 
a  list  of  playground  apparatus  and  directions. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4P5 

Davenport,  E. — Education  for  EMciency.  Deals  first 
with  a  general  discussion  of  the  relation  of  educa- 
tion to  efficiency  and  then  makes  special  applica- 
tion to  agriculture  as  relating  to  efficiency. 

Davis,  B,  M. — Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public 
Schools.  This  is  not  a  work  on  methods,  but  a 
discussion  showing  the  various  factors  at  work  to 
promote  agricultural  education  in  this  country. 
Treats  a  field  not  covered  by  any  other  writer. 

Eliot,  C.  W. — Education  for  Efficiency.  A  brief  defini- 
tion of  what  Ex-president  Eliot  considers  an  edu- 
cated man. 

GuLicK  AND  Ayres — Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. 
Shows  the  need  of  medical  inspection,  its  method, 
and  what  has  been  accomplished. 

Howe,  F.  W, — Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  (Free.) 
Contains  history,  plans  and  development  of  these 
clubs  up  to  1910. 

Hyde,  W.  D. — The  Teacher's  Philosophy  In  and  Out  of 
School.  An  enlightening  discussion  by  the  presi- 
dent of  Bowdoin  College. 

Johnson,  Geo.  E. — Education  by  Plays  and  Games.  In 
a  very  interesting  way  this  volume  shows  how  im- 
portant and  helpful  to  good  school  work  is  the 
matter  of  play. 

Kern,  O.  J. — Among  Country  Schools.  One  of  the  best 
contributions  to  rural  education. 

Knorr,  G.  W. — Consolidated  Rural  Schools.  Bulletin 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  (Free.)  The  most  complete  and  au- 
thoritative study  of  consolidation  made  up  to  this 
time. 


496  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Knorr,  G.  W. — A  Study  of  Fifteen  Consolidated  Schools. 
Southern  Education  Board,  Washington,  D.  C.  A 
detailed  account  of  a  tour  of  inspection  made  by  a 
group  of  southern  educators  to  consolidated 
schools  in  Indiana,  Ohio  and  Maryland. 

Leiper,  M.  a. — Teaching  Language  Through  Agriculture 
and  Domestic  Science.  Bulletin,  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.  (Free.) 
Contains  detailed  syllabi  and  outlines. 

MoNAHAN,  A.  C. — The  Status  of  Rural  Education  in  the 
United  States.  Bulletin  (1913),  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.  (Free.) 
A  brief  excellent  summary  of  actual  rural  school 
conditions  throughout  the  country. 

O'Shea,  M.  V. — Everyday  Problems  in  Teaching.  A 
concrete,  practical,  helpful  book. 

Palmer,  G.  H. — The  Ideal  Teacher.  An  inspiring  dis' 
cussion  by  one  of  America's  most  famous  teachers. 

Parker,  S.  C. — History  of  Modern  Elementary  Educa- 
tion. Deals  with  the  whole  range  of  elementary 
education,  but  especially  emphasizes  the  curricu- 
lum. 

Reaves,  W.  P. — The  Conservation  of  the  Health,  Teeth, 
Voice,  Hearing  and  Sight.  Privately  printed, 
Greensboro,  N.  C.  An  excellent  booklet,  illus- 
.     trated. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  The — A  Comparative  Study 
of  the  Public  School  Systems  in  the  Forty-eight 
States.  (15c.)  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New 
York.  An  excellent  statistical  study,  fully  illus- 
trated with  charts. 

Seerley,  H.  H. — The  Country  School.  A  large  range 
of  topics  is  discussed. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  497 

Slattery,  M. — Living  Teachers.  A  booklet  full  of  in- 
spiration and  helpfulness. 

State  Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction — Bul- 
letins on  Consolidation  or  Other  Rural  School  Im- 
provement. (Free.)  Address  at  various  state 
capitals.  Especially  good  bulletins  of  recent  date 
are  those  from  Washington,  Wisconsin,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  West  Virginia,  Okla- 
homa, Louisiana,  Minnesota,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Kentucky,  North  Dakota,  Kansas,  Illinois; 
also  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern's  annual  reports, 
Winnebago  County,  Illinois. 

Terman,  L.  M. — The  Teacher's  Health.  Gives  actual 
facts  and  statistics  as  to  the  health  of  teachers. 
Also  suggestions  for  conservation  of  health. 

Warren,  J.  E. — Agricultural  Projects  for  Elementary 
Schools.  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education, 
Boston.  (Free.)  This  manual  is  prepared  as  a 
guide  for  teachers  and  superintendents  in  the  in- 
troduction of  agriculture  into  elementary  schooU 
by  use  of  the  home  project  method. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


[References  are  to  Pages] 

Agriculture, 

and  correlation,  87. 

education  in,  29. 

and  nature  study,  70. 

new  standards  in,  5. 
Agricultural  Clubs, 

movement,  103, 

prize  winners  in,  105. 

and  rural  schools,  106. 
Alderman,  L.  R.,  quoted,  102. 
Arithmetic, 

and  agriculture,  88. 

content  of,  57. 
Arkansas,  corn  club  boys,  90. 
Art,  in  rural  school,  56. 
Assignment  of  lessons,  209. 
Attendance, 

average,  18. 

as  a  measure  of  school  efficiency,  17. 

year,  the,  22. 

Beauty,  cultivation  of  sense  of,  69, 
Benson,  O.  H.,  and  agricultural  clubs,  104. 
Building,  the  consolidated,  280,  284. 
Bureau  of  Education,  U.  S,,  486. 

Children, 

city  and  rural  compared,  94. 
farm,  10. 

farm  and  high  school,  259>. 
rural  and  play,  429. 
versus  subjects,  148. 

SOI 


502  INDEX 

[References  are  to  Pages] 

City, 

and  country  compared,  158. 

glamour  of,  14. 
Civics,  point  of  view  in,  74. 
Classification, 

details  of,  173. 

and  organization,  172. 
Clubs,  and  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  104. 
Community, 

co-operation  with  school,  99. 

and  consolidated  school,  246. 

and  teacher,  chapter  on,  153. 

and  teaching,  knowledge  of,  154. 
Conduct,  teacher  and  standards  of,  161. 
Consolidated  School, 

chapter  on,  228. 

and  attendance,  303. 

building  and  equipment,  chapter  on,  27^- 

and  relative  cost,  237. 

and  amount  of  education,  237.  ; 

and  enriched  curriculum,  233. 

definition  of,  228. 

and  community,  chapter  on,  246i 

allows  grading,  231. 

loyalty  to,  243. 

and  supervision,  236i. 

site  for,  286. 

as  a  social  center,  250. 

and  experienced  teachers,  233,  302. 

the  final  rural  type,  468. 
Consolidation, 

movement  toward,  chapter  on,  215. 

the  campaign  for,  300. 

how  to  eflfect,  chapter  on,  291. 

extent  of,  217. 

and  equipment,  272. 

not  a  fad,  219. 

conditions  fundamental  to,  294. 

importance  of  movement,  226. 


INDEX  505 


[References  are  to  Pages] 


Consolidation — Continued. 

legislation  bearing  on,  222. 

and  rural  high  schools,  261. 

origin  of,  216. 

not  a  panacea,  225. 

present  status  of,  219. 

and  teacher,  297. 

and  school  tax,  286. 

unit  of,  295. 
Consumer  and  rural  school,  30. 
Contract  of  hack  driver,  320. 
Cooperation,  community,  99. 
Corn,  yield  of,  28. 
Correlation, 

chapter  on,  77. 

and  agriculture,  87. 

basis  of,  86. 

dangers  in,  81. 

and  domestic  science,  89. 

and  efficiency,  85. 

and  interest,  83. 

principles  of,  79. 

results  of,  80. 

and  saving  time,  84. 
Country,  exodus  from,  11. 
Curriculum, 

chapter  on,  43. 

demand  for  new,  459. 

rapid  growth  of,  77. 

difference  between  old  and  new,  €4% 

in  old-time  schools,  45. 

the  reorganized,  60. 

revision  of,  78. 

Davenport,  E.,  quoted,  230. 
Discipline,  and  efficiency,  68. 
District  School, 

chapter  on,  379. 


504  INDEX 

[References  are  to  Pages] 

Dmtrict  School — Continued. 

and  its  buildings,  387.  , 

definition  of,  228. 

and  grounds,  395. 

and  its  library,  391. 

decreasing  size  of,  215. 

as  a  social  center,  397, 

standards  for,  380. 

false  virtues  ascribed  to,  292. 
Domestic  Science, 

and  correlation,  89. 

in  elementary  schools,  71. 

and  farm  home,  31. 
Drawing  power  of  school,  17. 
Driver, 

and  his  bond,  322. 

and  his  contract,  320. 

and  schedule,  318. 

and  transportation  of  pupils,  Z\7. 

Education, 

amount  of,  22,  457.  ' 

changes  under  way  in,  449. 

influence  of  democracy  on,  450. 

farm  children's  need  of,  6. 

importance  of  type,  24, 

the  new,  chapter  on,  447. 

rural  outlook  for,  447. 

vocational,  chapter  on,  93. 
Efficiency, 

new  demands  for,  16,  454. 

new  definition  of,  455. 

drawing  power  a  measure  of,  17. 

and  correlation,  85, 

and  discipline,  68. 

loss  through  small  schools,  215. 

loyalty  a  measure  of,  33. 

measured  by  type  of  education,  24. 


INDEX  505 


[References  are  to  Pages] 


Fairchild,  E.  T.,  quoted,  230. 
Farmers, 

moving  to  town,  11. 

and  better  schools,  25. 
Financial  Basis  of  consolidated  schools,  294. 

Geography, 

and  correlation,  89. 

and  nature  study,  70. 
Girls,  necessary  knowledge  for,  44. 
Grounds, 

and  buildings,  364. 

school,  276,  395. 

Hamlett,  State  Superintendent,  quoted,  329. 
Harris,  W.  T.,  155. 

quoted,  230. 
Health, 

versus  disease,  416. 

and  teacher,  423,  426. 

public  schools,  32. 
High  School, 

the  rural,  chapter  on,  258. 

and  consolidation,  261. 

curriculum  of  rural,  262. 

equipment  of  rural,  266. 

Farragut,  Tennessee,  267. 

growth  of,  258. 

Manassas,  Virginia,  268. 

outlook  for  rural,  270. 

and  teacher  training  in,  134,  137. 
Home, 

industrial  training  in,  zO. 

and  school,  61. 

and  teacher,  159. 
Home  Project, 

study,  100. 


5o6  INDEX 

[References  are  to  Pages] 

Home  Project — Continued. 

types  of,  101. 

Massachusetts,  100. 

Oregon,  102. 
Hygiene, 

school,  chapter  on,  400. 

and  adenoids,  418. 

and  bathing,  420. 

and  Indiana  requirements,  409. 

and  rural  schools,  22,  401. 

and  school  janitors,  370. 

of  the  mouth,  417, 

personal,  chapter  on,  415. 

and  vision,  421. 

and  water  supply,  392,  407. 

Ideal,  embodied  in  teacher,  116. 
Illiteracy,  as  a  measure  of  education,  43, 
Impulses,  social  in  youth,  247. 
Industrial, 

branches  in  rural  school,  55. 

recent  changes,  52. 
Industrial  training  in  home,  SO. 
Inspection,  medical  in  schools,  401, 
Interest,  the  contagion  of,  200. 
Interests, 

concrete  and  loyalty,  34. 

and  correlation,  83. 

lost,  11. 

schools  and  home  related,  61. 

Janitors, 

and  contract  for,  374. 

and  efficiency  of  equipment,  37?^. 

and  hygiene,  370. 

need  for  supplying,  368. 

rural  school,  365. 

the  teacher  and,  366. 
Jordan,  David  Starr,  quoted,  157. 


INDEX  507 


[Refticnces  are  to  Pages] 

Kern,  0.  J.,  and  play  festivals,  251. 
Knapp,  S.  a.,  quoted,  71. 
Knowledge,  useful  versus  useless,  48. 
Knorr,  G.  W.,  quoted,  224. 

Leadership,  present  need  of,  476. 

Legislation  and  consolidated  schools,  222. 

Lessons,  assignment  of,  209. 

Logan,  Kate  R.,  and  special  schools,  107. 

Louisiana,  agricultural  high  schools  of,  263. 

Loyalty, 

and  concrete  interests,  34. 

a  measure  of  school  efficiency,  33. 

Management, 

.chapter  on,  181. 

danger  points  in,  190. 

principles  of,  183. 
Manual  Training,  in  rural  schools,  29,  73. 
Martin,  A.  B.,  quoted,  90. 
Massachusetts,  home  project  study  in,  100. 
Methods,  in  city  and  country  schools,  158. 
Mortality,  excessive  in  rural  communities,  33. 
Music,  place  of  in  rural  schools,  56, 

Nature  Study, 

in  curriculum,  66. 

the  basis  of  correlation,  86. 

and  esthetic  sense,  69. 

and  geography,  70. 

the  child's  starting-point,  69. 
Normal  School,  function  of,  143. 
Normal  Training, 

growth  of,  142. 

in  high  schools,  142. 

Observation  Work,  necessity  of,  144, 
Old-Time  Schools, 

curriculum  of,  45. 

social  side  of,  2. 


5o8  INDEX 

[References  are  to  Pages] 
Opportunity, 

waste  of,  22. 

present  educational,  chapter  on,  476. 
Oregon,  home  project  study  in,  102. 
Organization, 

chapter  on,  165. 

and  classification,  172. 

problems  of,  166. 

work  preliminary  to,  168. 

Patrons,  duty  of  school  to,  26. 
Philosophy  of  the  teacher,  162. 
Play, 

apparatus,  434. 

and  country  life,  428. 

and  school  management,  191. 

as  a  moral  safeguard,  430. 

and  the  teacher,  442. 
Playground,  The, 

chapter  on,  428, 

apparatus  for,  434. 

preparation  of,  434. 

the  rural  school,  432. 
Point  of  View, 

in  curriculum,  70. 

in  teaching,  61,  148. 
Preparation,  scholastic,  131. 
Press,  the  influence  of,  485. 
Prices,  high  and  farming,  30. 
Professional  Training,  chapter  on,  140. 
Program, 

daily,  the,  168. 

principles  of,  182. 

Questioning, 

as  a  method  of  teaching,  206. 
principles  governing,  207. 

Recitation,  principles  of  the,  202. 
Regulations,  the  school,  171. 


INDEX  509 


[References  are  to  Pages] 

Reorganized  Curriculum,  chapter  on,  60. 
Roads, 

improvement  of,  313. 

and  transportation  of  pupils,  312. 
Route, 

the  transportation,  309. 

length  of,  311. 

relation  of  good  roads  to,  312. 
Routine,  the  school,  170, 
Rural  Life,  moral  dangers  in,  248. 
Rural  School, 

new  demands  on,  7. 

and  agricultural  clubs,  i06. 

early,  1. 

and  the  community,  30. 

difficulties  encountered  in,  119. 

and  domestic  science,  71. 

and  better  farming,  26. 

of  the  future,  463,  467. 

as  an  investment,  474. 

great  public  interest  in,  464. 

financial  status  of,  348. 

and  town  schools  compared,  7. 

and  its  management,  lal. 

limitations  of,  97. 

opportunity  of,  14. 

duty  to  patrons,  26. 

and  public  health,  401. 

organization  of,  165. 

and  progress,  464. 

recent  legislation  on,  465.  - 

present  status  of,  8. 

vital  subjects  lacking  in,  45. 

Sabin,  Henry,  155. 

Salaries  of  rural  teachers,  352. 

School  Buildings  and  Grounds, 

chapter  on,  364. 

care  of,  365. 


Sio  INDEX 

[References  are  to  Pages] 

School  Hygiene,  chapter  on,  400. 
Schools, 

consolidated  and  union,  224. 

and  home,  61. 

industrial  training  in,  54. 

town,  leads  from  farm,  12. 

pioneer,  2. 

and  public  health,  32. 

rural,  importance  of,  1. 

three  types  of,  228. 
School  Year,  length  of,  22. 
Self-Control  and  Management.  188. 
Social  Center, 

in  district  school,  Zl,  397. 

lack  of,  247. 

in  Illinois  schools,  251. 

in  Indiana  schools,  253. 

school  the  natural,  250. 
Spirit  of  Teacher,  chapter  on,  115. 
Standards, 

new  in  schools,  4. 

in  agriculture,  5. 

community,  162. 

old  still  prevailing,  45. 

of  the  recitation,  207. 
State  Aid  to  rural  schools,  360. 
State  Superintendent, 

as  educational  leader,  485. 

and  supervision,  343. 
Superintendent,  County, 

assistants  for,  339. 

and  consolidation,  296i. 

handicaps  on,  332. 

opportunities  of,  338. 

qualifications  of,  ZZl. 

as  rural  specialists,  484k 

and  supervision,  331. 


INDEX  511 

[References  are  to  Pages] 


Supervision, 

chapter  on,  329. 

and  county  superintendent,  331. 

county  the  unit  of,  331. 

industrial  in  the  South,  340. 

lack  of  in  rural  schools,  329. 

limitations  of,  332. 

outlook  for,  344. 

through  special  supervisors,  339. 

and  state  supervisors,  344. 
Supervisors,  special  state,  344. 
Support,  Financial, 

chapter  on,  347. 

as  a  measure  of  appreciation,  347, 

of  rural  schools,  348. 

and  state  aid,  360. 

and  taxation  unit,  358. 
SwANEY,  The  John,  School,  255. 

Tax,  School,  and  consolidation,  286. 
Taxation, 

local,  359. 

various  units  of,  358. 
Teacher, 

and  community,  chapter  on,  152. 

and  educational  ideal,  116. 

the,  and  consolidation,  297. 

and  his  health,  423. 

new  demands  upon,  133. 

and  his  growth,  121. 

insight  of,  150. 

influence  of,  20. 

and  home,  159. 

the,  as  leader,  461,  480 

as  model,  149. 

and  his  philosophy,  162. 

and  play,  443. 

professional  training  of,  140. 

and  scholastic  preparation,  131. 


512  .  INDEX 

[References  are  to  Pages] 

Teacher — Continued. 

spirit  of,  115. 

and  standards  of  conduct,  161. 

and  his  vocation,  128. 
Teaching, 

chapter  on,  197. 

as  an  art,  141. 

changes  in,  57. 

in  consolidated  schools,  232. 

and  correlation,  91. 

point  of  contact  in,  201. 

principles  of,  199. 

new  standards  in,  46u. 
Time, 

lost  through  useless  drill,  49. 

saving  of  and  correlation,  84. 

waste  of,  24. 
Training,  vocational,  93. 
Transportation, 

chapter  on,  308. 

by  automobile,  314. 

and  consolidated  schools,  294. 

and  the  driver,  317. 

public  distrust  of,  295. 

four  important  factors  in,  308. 

the,  route,  309. 

by  school  wagon,  315. 

Union  Schools,  definition  of,  224,  229. 

U.  S.  Department  Agriculture,  and  club  work,  104. 

Vocational  Subjects, 

in  curriculum,  64. 

education,  growth  of,  95. 

training,  chapter  on,  93. 

Wagons,  school,  315. 
Waste, 

elimination  of,  232, 

of  opportunity,  23. 
West  Virginia,  rural  school  supervision  in,  339. 


